自然选择学说教学设计（精选8篇）
一、导入：
同学们，在上课之前我先给大家讲一个故事。有一个生物学家小的时候，一次跟妈妈到花园里为小树培土，妈妈说：“泥土是个宝，小树有了泥土才能生长，别小看这泥土，是它长出了青草，喂肥了牛羊，我们才有奶喝，才有肉吃；是它长出了小麦和棉花，我们才有饭吃，才有衣穿，泥土太宝贵了。”小男孩问：“妈妈，那泥土能不能长出小狗来？”“不能呀！”妈妈笑着说：“小狗是狗妈妈生的，不是泥土里长出来的。”小男孩又问：“我是妈妈生的，妈妈是姥姥生的，对吗？”“对呀！所有的人都是他妈妈生的。”“那最早的妈妈又是谁生的？”小男孩充满疑惑地问。妈妈说：“是上帝！”小男孩又问：“那上帝是谁生的呢？”妈妈答不上来了，她对小男孩说：“孩子，世界上有好多事情对我们来说都是个谜，你像小树一样快快长大吧，这些谜等待你们去解开呢！”同学们能猜出这个生物学家是谁吗？
二、讲授新课
1、达尔文简介
达尔文（Charles Robert Darwin，1809～1882）英国博物学家，科学进化论的奠基人。1825～1827年在爱丁堡大学学医，1827～1831年在剑桥大学学神学。1831年12月27日，随“贝格尔号”皇家海军探险船，进行了为期5年的环球航行。
2、展示：达尔文提出自然选择学说的基础
“贝格尔号”首先沿着南美洲海岸线航行，在巴西和阿根廷，达尔文看到了许多千姿百态的动物。在南美洲西海岸中的加拉帕戈斯群岛，达尔文发现了许多罕见的生物。例如：26种陆栖鸟类中有25种是特有的，海生鱼类有15种是新种，25种甲壳虫中只有2～3种在其他地区有分布，185种绿色开花植物中有100种是新种。达尔文还发现，群岛上的鬣蜥和南美洲大陆上的鬣晰在形态特征上有很大的区别。我们一起来观察这组图片（展示幻灯片鬣蜥的图片）通过观察图片，你觉得这两种鬣蜥长得不一样的地方主要有哪些呢？（学生回答：主要是颜色和爪的大小不同。生活在南美洲大陆上的鬣蜥体色为绿色，爪比较小；而生活在群岛上的鬣蜥爪比较大。）达尔文还注意到，群岛上栖息着13种地雀，（展示地雀图片）通过观察图片，你觉得这13种地雀的喙形是否一样呢？（学生齐回答：不一样）从图片中我们可以看出这13种地雀来源于共同的祖先，但为什么它们的喙形会不一样？（学生回答：地雀是通过喙来啄食的，它们的喙形不同可能是因为它们的食物不同。）对，也就是说，每种地雀的喙形和大小都是和它所吃的食物相适应的。
除此之外，达尔文还发现不同岛屿上龟壳的形态不同.。有的呈圆拱形，有的呈马鞍形。(展示龟图片）
3、提出问题：为什么祖先相同的生物，其后代却存在明显的差异？(学生回答：因为他们生活在不同的地方，食物也不同。)达尔文进一步观察发现：存在差异的后代之间食物来源和生活环境不同。于是达尔文意识到群岛上动物与环境的协调一致不是上帝创造的，而是各种生物发生着适应环境的变化，这种变化显示出环境的影响和大自然的选择。我们可以简单概括为：不同自然环境下生存下来的个体不同，生物的变化显示出大自然的选择作用。
4、那么达尔文是怎样来论证这一过程的？
达尔文在结束了长达5年的环球航行，回到英国后，他继续思索着环球航行和考察的见闻，并试图弄明白加拉帕戈斯群岛的生物是怎样形成各种适应性变化的。达尔文注意到人们饲养的动物和栽培的植物，都是从野生原种经过代代的精心选择和培育形成的。（展示幻灯片金鱼、宠物狗等图片）像金鱼、宠物狗、不同品种的鸡、菊花、毛质优良的绵羊等。那么什么叫做人工选择呢？请同学们说说自己的见解（学生回答：人工选择就是人们对动植物的培育总是选那些对自己有利的品种）好，这位同学答得不错，但还不全面。现在我们一起来看一下什么叫做人工选择（出示人工选择概念的幻灯片）（通过人工方法保存具有有利变异的个体和淘汰具有不利变异的个体，以改良生物的性状和培育新品种的过程叫做人工选择。）那么达尔文从人工选择中得到了什么启示呢？（学生回答：自然界中也一定存在着与人工选择相似的过程，即自然选择。）对，（展示幻灯片）也就是说人工选择能培育出不同的动植物品种，自然环境的选择作用应同样能够促进生物进化。
5、大自然是怎样对生物的变化进行选择的呢？
达尔文通过查阅大量的资料，并受到马尔萨斯的《人口论》中为生存而斗争的观点的启发，提出了自然选择学说，并于1859年发表了《物种起源》。那么，什么叫做自然选择呢？哪位同学能用自己的话来说一下？（学生回答：自然选择就是，自然环境对生存在里面的生物进行了选择，那些能够适应环境的就能生存下来，不能适应环境的就被淘汰掉。）这位同学回答得不错，但还不全面，现在让我们一起来看一下这个概念：（出示幻灯片）(全班齐读)自然界中的生物，通过激烈的生存斗争，适应者生存下来，不适应者被淘汰掉，就是自然选择。
在进化论研究的历史上，长颈鹿的长颈的形成原因曾经是人们争论的焦点。（出示长颈鹿幻灯片）通过观察图片你能否说出长颈鹿的颈为什么会变得这么长？（学生回答：因为长颈的个体容易吃到树上的树叶，获得充足的能量而存活，短颈的个体吃不到树叶而被饿死。）这位同学回答得不错。对于长颈鹿长颈形成的原因，按照自然选择学说是这样解释的：（解说：古代长颈鹿的颈，有的长、有的短，颈的长短可遗传。长颈者可以吃到树叶，短颈者吃不到树叶。短颈者因为吃不到树叶，在演化过程中逐渐被淘汰。所以长颈鹿的颈才会这么长。也就是说长颈鹿的长颈是自然选择的结果。）
那么自然选择学说的主要内容是什么呢？通过阅读课本的内容，我们请一位同学来回答。（学生回答：绝大多数物种繁殖的后代数量，往往超过生存环境的承受力，致使后代无法获得足够的食物、水和栖息环境等。在竞争生存空间或有限的自然资源时，某些微小变异使生物更能适应环境变化，这样的个体容易生存和繁殖后代，它们的后代可能继承了这种有利性状。这样，经过许多代以后，微小的有利变异在物种内积累起来，一个更加适应环境和生命力更强的新物种形成，这就是自然选择。）
那么现在我们简单地来概括一下自然选择学说的主要内容：（出示幻灯片：过度繁殖、生存斗争、遗传变异、适者生存）
那现在我们来观察几组图片，看看你是否能辨认出是自然选择学说的哪个内容。（展示幻灯片）（全班一起回答）
那么接下来我们来做一下活动：模拟自然选择（展示幻灯片）在一个遥远的星球上曾有4种“豆豆鸟”，它们长相近似，但喙的大小和形状不同。先前生存的3 各豆豆鸟喙形分别像晾衣夹子、镊子、解剖针。后来又出现了像汤匙一样的喙形。今天我们就让同学们来扮演这4种豆豆鸟。我们先来看看这个活动的目的要求、材料用具和方法步骤。好，那么现在有哪些同学愿意来参与这个活动呢？ 从这个活动的结果来看，我们可以看出哪种喙形的豆豆鸟在生存竞争中更具优势？这个活动的结果说明了什么？（出示幻灯片）请你填空。（学生回答：自然选择是通过生存竞争实现的，生物的多样性和适应性是自然选择的结果。）
我们知道在自然界中，生物的生存要受到环境的选择，也就是说，选择在自然界中是普遍存在的。那么选择是否具有一定的方向性呢？我们来看一下下面这个例子。（展示幻灯片桦尺蛾图片）这分别是18世纪的英国曼彻斯特地区和1950年的曼彻斯特地区桦尺蛾的种群特点。这两张图片中显示了桦尺蛾的种群特点是否一样？（学生回答:不一样，左边图片中我们能明显地看到了一只黑色蛾，仔细看还能发现有很多跟树皮颜色相似的浅色蛾。而右边图片能明显看到的是一只白色蛾，仔细地看同样能发现有很多跟树皮颜色相近的深色蛾。）这位同学观察得很入微，那么大家思考一下，为什么随着时间的改变，这里的桦尺蛾的种群特点会发生改变呢？（学生回答：因为桦尺蛾所栖息的树皮颜色发生了变化，树皮由原来的浅色变成了黑褐色。）回答得很好。18世纪的曼彻斯特地区山青水秀、绿树成阴。那里的森林中生活着一种桦尺蛾，它们夜间活动，白天栖息在长满地衣的树干上。1850年一些生物学家来这里考察，发现绝大多数桦尺蛾的颜色是浅色的，只有少数是深色的。这些深色桦尺蛾是浅色桦尺蛾在自然状态下的变异类型。1950年，曼彻斯特已经变成一个工业城市。这里工厂林立，烟雾弥漫，工厂排出的煤烟杀死了地衣，结果使树皮裸露并被熏成黑褐色。这时候，又有一些生物学家来这里考察，使他们惊讶的是，这里的深色桦尺蛾变成了常见类型。而浅色桦尺蛾却成了少数。从桦尺蛾的例子可以看到，桦尺蛾的体色有深有浅，只有当体色与周围环境相协调时，才具有保护色的意义，不易被天敌发现。环境是不断变化的，变化的环境选择生物进化的方向，环境的选择造成了基因频率的定向改变，导致生物朝着一定的方向缓慢地进化。由此可见，是什么决定了生物进化的方向呢？（学生回答：环境的定向选择作用。）那么，接下来我们来看看下面这个例子，（展示幻灯片）在某个经常刮大风的海岛上，有许多无翅或残翅的昆虫（见上图），请分析，在这个海岛上，为什么无翅的昆虫特别多？（学生回答：因为有翅膀的昆虫容易被大风吹走。）对，由于有翅膀飞行，但翅膀不够强大的个体容易被海风吹到海里，生存和繁殖后代的机会较少。而残翅或无翅的昆虫不能飞翔，不容易被海风吹到海里，它们生存和繁殖后代的机会较大，这样经过一段时间的积累后，这个海岛上的无翅昆虫就会变得特别多。
三、小结
1、自然选择的概念
2、自然选择的主要内容
3、自然选择的特点
课前指导学生阅读高中生物教材中达尔文自然选择学说的解释模型, 多媒体展示长颈鹿脖子的进化组图, 引导学生回顾初中有关生物进化的知识, 组织学生尝试用达尔文的观点解释。通过问题引导和帮助学生理解把握“过度繁殖、生存斗争、遗传变异、适者生存”对生物进化的作用, 构建“自然选择”这一概念。对于图1, 教师可一边讲解一边和学生一起构建, 而图2的概念图则作为小结。
多媒体展示果蝇大量繁殖图, 直观地告诉学生生物普遍具有过度繁殖的特性。观察一窝多鼠图旨在启发学生:后代在性状上有较大差异, 即生物产生了变异。由于受到当时科学发展水平的限制, 对于变异的本质, 达尔文还不能做出科学解释。但通过对人教版高中生物必修2 第5章的学习, 学生已掌握生物变异的原因, 把前后知识联系起来, 从而使分散的生物学概念系统化, 形成知识体系, 帮助学生记忆, 提高学生的学习效率。笔者认为, 即使是相同的内容, 如果教学目标不同, 构建的概念模型也有可能不同。把前后知识通过以下概念图串联起来, 可帮助学生形成比较系统的知识网络。
通过构建概念模型, 学生理解自然选择学说中四个主要内容之间的联系: (1) 自然选择学说的四点主要内容不是孤立的, 而是相互联系的; (2) 遗传和变异是自然选择的内因, 遗传使生物保持物种的稳定性和连续性, 变异使物种向前发展进化; (3) 过度繁殖产生的大量个体不仅提供了更多的变异, 为自然选择提供了更多的选择材料, 而且还加剧了生存斗争; (4) 变异一般是不定向的, 而自然选择是定向的, 决定着生物进化的方向; (5) 生存斗争是自然选择的过程, 是生物进化的动力, 而适者生存是自然选择的结果; (6) 遗传和变异是基础, 过度繁殖是前提, 生存斗争是手段, 适者生存是结果。
在生物教学中采用构建模型的方法有助于学生消化吸收科学知识, 形成独立思考的思维能力。生物模型的构建有多种多样的形式, 有时甚至可以用一张纸或是一块橡皮对某个生物规律进行合理的模型化, 变抽象为直观, 变复杂为简单。模型的构建首先是在大脑中形成的对生物问题的一种映射, 然后通过实物或者图表等直观形式表现出来。经过一定训练后, 学生自己完全可以靠自己的思维建立模型并通过模型解释和解决实际问题。在这过程中, 教师应给予学生足够的时间和空间进行自主学习, 并鼓励学生之间进行合作交流。通过合作交流, 学生学会从不同角度去思考解决问题, 而且能够从中取长补短, 相互启发, 共同进步, 教师在构建模型教学中应承担起引导者的角色, 努力提高学生建模的积极性和建模的能力。
摘要：高中生物学习内容具有一定的抽象性, 在教学过程中利用构建模型的方法可以培养学生的建模思维和建模能力, 有利于学生形成独立的科学认知体系。虽然人教版高中生物必修2《遗传与进化》第7章《现代生物进化理论》第一节中给出了达尔文自然选择学说的解释模型, 但学生仍对该学说的四点内容的内在联系模糊不清。巧用概念模型可破解“自然选择学说”的学习难点, 帮助学生理解“消化”该学说的四点内容的内在联系。
“自然选择学说”被恩格斯誉为19世纪三大自然科学发现之一。学生在初中生物课堂上已经学过，已有初步了解，但由于遗忘和缺乏深入系统的体验和学习，很难正确理解和把握自然选择学说的要点和精髓。虽然教材给出了达尔文自然选择学说的解释模型，但学生仍对该学说的四点内容的内在联系模糊不清。针对以上情况，笔者通过构建概念模型让学生理解“消化”该学说四点内容的内在联系。
课前指导学生阅读教材中达尔文自然选择学说的解释模型，多媒体展示长颈鹿脖子的进化组图，引导学生回顾初中有关进化的知识，组织学生尝试用达尔文的观点解释。长颈鹿实例证明：长颈鹿在繁殖过程中存在变异现象，有颈长或颈短的变异，脖子长的可以吃到高大的树木上的叶子，过于短的可以吃草和灌木，但介于二者间的无法获取足够的食物，它们便会饿死，使其数量减少，最后全部消失。因为其他长颈鹿不具有这样的基因，在以后的繁殖过程中就不会存在脖子长度适中的长颈鹿。通过问题引导和帮助学生理解把握“过度繁殖、生存斗争、遗传变异、适者生存”对生物进化的作用，构建“自然选择”这一概念。左下图教师一边讲解一边和同学一起建构，右下概念图作为小结，概念模型如下：
先多媒体展示果蝇大量繁殖图，直观地告诉学生生物普遍具有过度繁殖的特性。观察一窝多鼠图旨在启发学生：后代在性状上有较大差异，即生物产生了变异。由于受到当时科学发展水平的限制，对于变异的本质达尔文还不能做出科学的解释。但通过对人教版必修2第5章的学习学生已掌握生物变异的原因，把前后知识联系起来，从而使分散的生物学概念系统化，形成知识体系，帮助学生记忆，提高学生的学习素养。桦尺蛾实例证明：在18世纪，英国的许多树干上都长满了地衣，一些体色（灰白色）的桦尺蛾可以避开猎食者，所以它的数量较多，但偶尔也能看见黑色的桦尺蛾。18世纪末，随着工业革命的进行，烧煤的工厂排出大量浓密的黑烟。煤烟杀死了地衣熏黑了树皮，有利于黑色的桦尺蛾生存。于是1840年前后，98%的桦尺蛾都变黑了。因此，我认为即使是相同的内容，如果教学目标不同，构建的概念模型有可能不同。把前后知识通过以下概念图串联起来，可以帮助学生形成比较系统的知识网络。
通过构建概念模型，学生理解自然选择中四个主要内容之间的联系：（1）自然选择学说的四点主要内容不是孤立的，而是相互联系的。（2）遗传和变异是自然选择的内因，遗传使生物保持物种的稳定性和连续性，变异使物种向前发展进化。（3）过度繁殖产生的大量个体不仅提供了更多的变异，为自然选择提供了更多的选择材料，而且加剧了生存斗争。（4）变异一般是不定向的，而自然选择是定向的，决定着生物进化的方向。（5）生存斗争是自然选择的过程，是生物进化的动力，而适者生存是自然选择的结果。（6）遗传和变异是基础，过度繁殖是前提，生存斗争是手段，适者生存是结果。
构建概念模型可以是一次教学活动的目标，也可以是在教学过程中为实现教学目标而采用的一种教学手段。
通过以下练习，可以检测学生的掌握情况。
1.用达尔文的自然选择学说来判断下列叙述中正确的是（A）
A.野兔的保护色和鹰锐利的目光是它们相互选择的结果
B.长颈鹿经常努力伸长颈和前肢去吃高处的树叶，因此颈和前肢变得很长
C.尺蛾工业黑化现象是因为受煤烟污染而被熏黑的
D.北极熊为了适应冰天雪地的环境，所以它定向地产生了白色的变异
2.有性生殖的出现直接推动了生物的进化，其原因是（D）
A.有性生殖是高等生物所存在的生殖方式
B.有性生殖是经过两个生殖细胞的结合
C.有性生殖是由减数分裂形成的
D.通过有性生殖，实现了基因重组，增强了生物的变异性
3.如图是一农田长期使用一种农药后害虫群体密度变化曲线。下列叙述，不符合达尔文进化观点的是（B）
A.随着农药的使用，害虫群体的抗药性逐渐增强
B.农药使害虫产生变异
C.害虫抗药性的形成是农药对害虫定向选择的结果
0 绪
论„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„1 1．孙思邈„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„3 2．钱
乙„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„8 3．陈自明 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„12 4．刘完素 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„18 5．张元素 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„26 6．张从正 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„32 7．李
杲 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„38 8．朱震亨 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„45 9．薛
己 „„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„52 10．万
全„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„57 11．龚廷贤„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„63 12．杨继洲„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„69 13．缪希雍„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„74 14．陈实功„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„79 15．张介宾„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„84 16．吴有性„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„91 17．李中梓„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„95 18．绮
石„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„100 19．喻
昌„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„104 20．傅
山„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„108 21．张
璐„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„113 22．叶
桂„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„118 23．徐大椿„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„123 24．王清任„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„128 25．王泰林„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„133 26．吴师机„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„138 27．王士雄„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„142 28．唐宗海„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„147 29．张锡纯„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„153 30．施今墨„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„„159
0绪 论
绪论主要介绍本学科的研究对象与课程特点,本教材与学术流派、中医学说的关系,学习中医各家学说的目的意义及学习方法。
学习要求：
掌握中医各家学说的研究范围,课程特点；熟悉学习目的与意义；了解其与中医学术流派和中医学说的关系,学习方法。
1.孙思邈
孙思邈博极医源,博采众长,阐发养生理论,总结养生方法；广集古方与时方,创制新方并化裁古方,著《备急千金要方》与《千金翼方》,集唐以前方剂学之大成,是一位承先启后的医药学家和养生家。
学习要求：
掌握养生理论和方法,方剂学成就；熟悉养生理论历史沿革；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
2.钱
乙
钱乙阐发小儿生理病理特点,在《内经》《中藏经》《金匮要略》《备急千金要方》基础上,创立小儿五脏辨证纲领,善于化裁创制新方,喜用丸散膏丹。对后世产生了积极的影响。
学习要求：
掌握小儿生理、病理特点,五脏辨证；熟悉临证用药特色；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
3.陈自明
陈自明总结南宋以前妇科经验,提出妇人以血为基本,气血不调,损伤冲任是导致妇科疾病的重要病机。临证注重气血并补,调理肝脾,善用四物汤化裁。阐发痈疽病因病机、辨证方法,治疗强调开门逐寇,内外兼治,对证用药,对后世产生了巨大影响。
学习要求：
掌握妇人以血为基本的观点,应用四物汤的特色；熟悉痈疽治疗经验；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
4.刘完素
刘完素深入研究《内经》,重视中医基础理论探讨,结合临床实践,标新立异,勇创新说,阐发火热论,提出六气皆能化火观点,补充燥证病机,首倡内风,发明辛凉与甘寒解表及表里双解大法,表里分治火热病,创制防风通圣散、地黄饮子、芍药汤等名方,开创了金元时期中医学发展的新局面。
学习要求：
掌握六气皆能化火理论及治疗火热病、中风、喑痱证的特色；熟悉其创新精神与创新思想,治疗火热病方法的历史沿革；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
5.张元素
张元素重视理论探讨,结合临床实践,敢于疑古,创立新说,阐发脏腑辨证理论,药物升降浮沉说,创立归经学说与引经报使,中药分类法,重视气味配伍。创制当归拈痛汤、九味羌活汤等名方,成为金元时期中医学术争鸣的开创者之一。
学习要求：
掌脏腑辨证论治体系、药物升降浮沉、中药归经学说与引经报使；熟悉中药分类及味配伍法,用药经验；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
6.张从正
张从正远承《内经》及仲景学说,近宗刘河间之学,提出“病由邪生,攻邪已病”观点,阐发攻邪学说,善用汗、吐、下三法治疗疾病。总结以情胜情法调治情志疾病。
学习要求：
掌握汗吐下攻邪三法的概念和适用范围；熟悉精神疗法的应用；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
7.李 杲
李杲系统总结阐发脾胃生理功能,脾胃内伤病的病因病机,临床特征及其与外感病的鉴别,提出“内伤脾胃,百病由生”观点,发明补中升阳,甘温除热治疗原则,创制补中益气汤、升阳益胃汤、升阳散火汤、当归补血汤、当归六黄汤等著名方剂,成为“补土派”的创始人。
学习要求：
掌握脾胃生理功能、脾胃内伤病病因病机,甘温除热与补中益气汤；熟悉脾胃学说历史沿革,临证经验与用药特色；了解生平,代表著作与学术成就对后世的影响。
8.朱震亨
朱震亨学宗刘完素,兼采李杲与张从正之说,援引理学阐发医理,提出阳有余阴不足论和相火论；阐发阴虚火旺病因病机,提出滋阴降火治疗大法,创制大补阴丸；总结痰病、郁证等杂病论治特点和经验,对中医基础理论与临床医学的发展产生了重大影响。
学习要求： 掌握相火论、阳有余阴不足论及论治火证、痰证和郁证经验;熟悉其学术渊源,痰病历史沿革；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
9.薛己
薛己幼承家学,博览群书,吸取诸家之长,善于总结临床经验,著书立说,精通各科。重视脾肾,提出胃气受伤,虚证蜂起之说；临证擅用补中益气汤、六味地黄丸、金匮肾气丸等补益脾胃,温补肾命,对后世产生了重大影响。
学习要求：
掌握薛己人以胃气为本理论,温补脾肾治疗方法；熟悉临证用药方法与特色,应用补中益气汤经验；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
10.万 全
万全阐发小儿生理病理特点及三因致病说,重视优生优育；提出“脾胃虚弱,百病蜂起”之说,临证注重调理脾胃,善用丸散膏丹。还详细论述了寡欲、慎动、法时、却疾养生方法及与方药。
学习要求：
掌握小儿生理病理特点、三因致病说、养生四要；熟悉优生优育观,临证用药特色；了解生平,代表著作及其对后世的影响。
11.龚廷贤
龚廷贤阐发脾胃理论,擅长辨治泄泻、呕吐等杂病；总结老年养生方法,创制八仙长寿丸、阳春白雪糕、延寿丹等防治老年病良方,为后世老年养生提供了很多借鉴。
学习要求: 掌握脾胃理论,辨治泄泻、呕吐经验；熟悉老年养生方法与方药；了解生平,代表著作及其学术成就对后世的影响。
12.杨继洲
杨继洲溯源穷流,集针灸诸家之大成,师古而不泥；重视经络理论, 提出“宁失其穴,勿失其经”；总结和创新针刺手法,建立了比较规范和实用的针刺手法体系；倡导针灸药物并重,为针灸学的发展作出了重要的贡献。
学习要求：
掌握杨继洲总结和创新的针刺手法，针灸药物并重思想；熟悉经络理论对针灸的重要指导价值；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
13.缪希雍
缪希雍阐发外感病病因病机,提出邪从口鼻而入,应用自制羌活汤,白虎汤、竹叶石膏汤加减治疗外感热病；倡导“内虚暗风”说。临证重视调理脾胃,总结行血、补肝和降气治疗阴虚火旺吐血三要法；其学说对后世产生了较大影响。
学习要求：
掌握辨治伤寒病经验,调理脾胃特色,治疗吐血三要法；熟悉“内虚暗风”说；了解生平,代表著作与学术成就对后世的影响
14.陈实功
陈实功深入研究疮疡病因病机,详辨阴证与阳证,采用内外结合疗法,以消托补内治为主,兼用针刀与外敷药物,对后世产生了重要影响,成为外科正宗派的代表人物。
学习要求：
掌握疮疡三因说,消托补三法的应用；熟悉外治方法,辨治乳痈经验；了解生平，著作,疮痈预后及注意事项。
15.张介宾
张介宾深入研究《易经》《内经》及诸家之论,重视中医基础理论探讨,结合临床实践,溯本求原,创立新说,提出阴阳同源一体观,阐发阳非有余、阴常不足论,力倡治形,于精气阴阳虚损之治尤有心得,创制左归丸（饮）、右归丸（饮）等名方,成为明清时期中医学发展的有力推动者。
学习要求：
掌握张介宾的阴阳同源一体观、阳非有余、阴常不足论；熟悉二纲六变辨证纲领,治疗精气阴阳虚损的特色；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
16.吴有性
吴有性深入研究温疫的病因病机,传变规律,创立温疫学说；发明达原饮疏利募原,用白虎汤辛凉发散,承气汤攻里通下,对温病学派产生了重大影响。
学习要求：
掌握温疫病因,侵入途径,邪伏部位,治疗特色；熟悉温疫表里分传规律,与伤寒的鉴别要点；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
17.李中梓
李中梓博采众家,学而不偏,提出“肾为先天之本,脾为后天之本”；临证强调“补气在补血之先”,“养阳在滋阴之上”,喜用膏方。其治疗癃闭等杂病经验值得后世借鉴。学习要求：
掌握先天后天根本论,治疗癃闭经验；熟悉气血阴阳论；了解生平、代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
18.绮石
绮石详细论述了虚劳的病因病机,治疗方法,防护措施,尤其是提出三本二统理论以及清肺保金、补脾益气治疗大法,对后世产生了巨大影响。
学习要求：
掌握虚劳病因、三本二统,清肺保金与补脾益气治疗大法；熟悉用药特点与注意事项,虚劳防护措施；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
19.喻昌
喻昌辨正《内经》“秋伤于湿”为“秋伤于燥”之误,阐发燥邪致病机理,创制清燥救肺汤。总结治疗臌胀三法,用人参败毒散“逆流挽舟”治疗痢疾为后世所效法。
学习要求：
掌握秋燥理论及治疗秋燥、臌胀的特色；熟悉“逆流挽舟”治痢方法；了解生平,代表著作及其学术成就对后世的影响。
20.傅山
傅山重视气血，深入探讨带下病与产后病的病因病机,善治带下及产后病,对后世产生了巨大影响。辨治不孕症、血崩症亦有丰富经验，给后世以很大启示。
学习要求：
掌握傅氏重视气血的理论，治疗带下病、产后病的经验,应用生化汤的特色；熟悉治疗不孕症、血崩症的方法；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
21.张璐
张璐阐发血证病因病机，总结了血证治疗经验；其对腹胀及产后急症的处理亦有丰富经验，对后世影响较大。
学习要求：
掌握张璐论治血证、腹胀的特色；熟悉治疗产后急症方法；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
22.叶桂
叶桂博览群书,虚心求教,汲取诸家之长,融会古今,重视临床实践,勇于创新,创立温病卫气营血辨证纲领,为温病学的发展壮大奠定坚实的基础；并提出肝风内动、久病入络说,总结治疗胃阴不足及虚损症经验。
学习要求：
掌握治疗肝风内动、胃阴不足及虚损病经验；熟悉卫气营血辨证纲领,久病入络说,创新精神与创新思想；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
23.徐大椿
徐大椿尊经崇古,博学多才,重视中医理论研究,阐发元气学说,悉心研究中药药性,强调用药如用兵；善于审证求因,辨病论治,喜用古方,提倡主方主药,轻药愈病,用药勿拘泥于归经。
学习要求：
掌握元气学说；熟悉辨病论治及用药特色；了解生平,代表著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
24.王清任
王清任重视脏腑,注重解剖,勇创新说,阐发瘀血理论,提出“灵机记性在脑不在心”观点,详论气虚中风病机与治疗,创制许多活血化瘀方剂,其血府逐瘀汤、通窍活血汤、少腹逐瘀汤、补阳还五汤对后世产生了重大影响。
学习要求：
掌握王清任瘀血理论、气虚中风论治特色；熟悉脑髓说的学术价值；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
25.王泰林
王泰林精通内外科,深入探讨肝病的病因病机,以肝气、肝风、肝火为纲辨治肝病,总结治疗肝病大法三十种。其治疗心腹疼痛,以九痛为提纲,涉及寒、热、虚、实、气、血,对后世颇有启发。
学习要求：
掌握肝气、肝风、肝火的辨证与用药；熟悉心腹九痛的辨证与治疗；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
26.吴师机
吴师机阐发内病外治理论,系统总结外治经验与用药方法,倡导“三焦分治法”；详述膏药含义、膏方来源、膏药功效、组方与配伍规律、制膏方法与注意事项、贴敷部位,应用三焦通治膏与专主膏的要点。学习要求：
掌握吴师机内病外治的理论依据、应用膏药的特色；熟悉吴师机治分三焦的理论、外治法的具体应用方法；了解生平，著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
27.王士雄
王士雄纵论温病,集温病学之大成。其阐发暑性、暑病临床特征,创制新的清暑益气汤,对后世产生了巨大影响。善于从痰论治,注重甘寒养阴,重视食疗在防治疾病中的重要作用。
学习要求：
掌握暑邪性质、暑病临床特征以及暑病治疗方法；熟悉伏气温病和从痰论治特色,饮食疗法；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
28.唐宗海
唐宗海深入阐发水火气血的关系,辨析血证病因病机,提出止血、消瘀、宁血、补血统治血证四法。倡导中西医汇通,成为近代中西医汇通学派的代表人物。
学习要求：
掌握血证病因病机和统治血证的四法；熟悉气血水火相互关系，临证治疗特色和血证治疗注意事项；了解生平，著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
29.张锡纯
张锡纯主张沟通中西,取长补短,勇于创新,阐发大气理论与中风病因病机,深入研究中药功效,创制镇肝熄风汤、升陷汤、活络效灵丹、寿胎丸等许多新方,临证擅用小方,喜用生药,中西药并用。
学习要求：
掌握大气理论、治疗中风经验和临证用药特色；熟悉镇肝熄风汤配伍特色,治疗大气下陷经验；了解生平,著作及学术成就对后世的影响。
30.施今墨
施今墨倡导中西医学融会贯通,提出十纲辨证理论；临证处方注重配伍,善用药对。其治疗脾胃病、痹证等经验对临床具有重要的指导意义。
学习要求：
商学院 1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21.22.23.24.25.26.27.28.29.30.31.32.33.34.35.重商主义经济学说的基本观点 简述早、晚期重商主义思想的异同 简述威廉配第的工资理论 大卫·休谟对经济学作出了哪些贡献？ 经济表将全部流通过程归纳为哪五次交换行为？ 简述魁奈的纯产品学说 亚当·斯密认为增加国民财富靠哪些两种方法？ 简述亚当·斯密有关价值决定的理论 简述亚当·斯密的生产性劳动与非生产性劳动的理论 李嘉图价值理论的两个不可克服的矛盾 李嘉图是如何分析工资利润之间量的比例变化的各种因素的？ 李嘉图学派 马尔萨斯的人口理论有何政策寓意？ 马尔萨斯的有效需求不足危机论 萨伊的价值理论 萨伊定律 西尼尔为纯经济学的建立提出了哪些基本命题？ 巴师夏是如何论证资本家和工人之间存在“合作”关系的？ 约翰·穆勒的国际价值理论 西斯蒙第的经济危机理论 李斯特的国家经济发展阶段论 罗雪尔将经济学中的历史方法归纳为哪几条基本原理？ 边际主义有哪些重要先驱？ 戈森定律 奥地利学派的抽象演绎法有哪几个特点？ 简述维塞尔的“归属论” 庞巴维克的时差利息论 杰文斯交换方程式 瓦尔拉斯的一般均衡理论 克拉克的边际生产力论 马歇尔经济学方法论的特点 马歇尔的均衡价格理论 马歇尔的收入分配理论 “凯恩斯革命” 凯恩斯的经济思想与新古典经济学存在哪些重大分歧？
闫海霞
一:说教材：
《劝学》是职高语文《基础模块下》第六单元的第一篇课文。《劝学》则是《荀子》的开篇之作，主要讲述了荀子对学习观的理解。对于已经熟悉职高学习方式的学生来说，有一定的教育意义。职高考大纲要求我们：继续熟悉常见的文言实词的一般用法，了解常见的文言句式，借助工具书阅读浅易的文言文。所以，这篇文章的教学既要担负起积累文言文基础知识的任务，又要把在精读课中学到的知识延伸，能力迁移，形成基本技能的双重任务。基于此，我确立了本文的教学目标：
1、知识目标：(1)掌握重点文言知识，积累文言词汇。实词如：劝、中、就、假、绝等等，虚词如：而、焉、以、其、之。(2)掌握比喻论证的方法
2、能力目标：
（1）培养学生借助注释和工具书阅读浅显文言文，理解重点词句含义，以及初步的研究分析能力。
（2）掌握背诵的技巧。
3、德育目标：了解学习的意义、态度和方法，培养谦虚好学的风气。根据这些教学目标我确立了本文的重难点：
1．文言实虚词的意义和用法。
2．理解比喻的含义及其内在联系。
二、说教法：
学生通过前一单元的文言知识的学习和积累，已经具备了一定的文言基础，而且，我所教授的班级中有大部分学生已经能够在教师地点拨下较准确地分析文言文的各种特殊现象，比如词类活用、句式活用、通假字、古今异义等，所以拟定采用以学生自读和教师点拨相结合的方法突破重难点。主要的教学设想是：
1、抓住学生好新好奇的特点，利用幻灯片激发其学习文言文的兴趣。
2、从教育学的角度来讲，以思维训练为中心，通过提问、讨论、学生质疑学生答疑，解决文字障碍，并掌握文言知识，特别是重点实虚词的意义和用法。
3、以文章的脉络为基础，在自读过程中，引导学生在每段中找出比喻句，并引导学生得出比喻的含义和他们的内在关系，把教师的认知结构轻松转化成学生的认知结构。
三、说学法：
由于初高中对文言文的掌握程度的要求有所不同，高中要求得更深，所以，这对于部分学生特别是基础比较差的学生来说，听不懂，看不懂的挫折感可能会更加严重，这时候，学生只有从教师身上得到肯定，才能建立起自信心，也才能调动学习主动性和积极性；另外，学生的年龄层决定了他们注意力易分散、爱发表见解的特点，所以，在学生的学法上我设定：
1、创造更多的条件和机会，让更多的学生发表见解，并给予适当的肯定和鼓励；
2、学生在学习本文时将遇到一些知识障碍，首先让学生运用已经学过的知识尝试翻译重点句子，从而教给他们处理这类问题的能力。
3、学会辨析词义，并对重点字词的意思进行归纳总结。
四、说教学程序：
布置预习：预习《劝学》，找出比喻句，思考每一段的比喻句的含义和它们的内在联系。
第一课时：
1、导入：以《花未眠》中“人感受美的能力是有限的”入手，引出人不能因为能力有限自然美无限就停止审美，停止审美意味着死亡的结论，使他们更深刻的明白，学习不能因为没有止境就停止学习。自然导出新课
2、解题。包括：（1）、“劝”的意思为鼓励，并联系以前学过的课文中的句子（国人皆劝），起到统领全文的作用。（2）、荀子简介。
3、听磁带并对照注释，正字正音。主要有：輮、槁暴、舆、跬步、骐骥、锲 根据预习，学生对不理解的字词进行质疑，其他同学答疑，教师进行点拨。
4、找出第二段中的五个比喻句，并分析其含义和内在联系。
5、约五分钟时间给学生按照论证过程尝试背诵。
6、仿照第二段的分析方法，尝试以相同的方法分析第三、四段的比喻句的内在联系
7、归纳：本文的设喻有什么特点：以日常生活中常见的事情或现象作为喻体
8、总结： 《劝学》以“劝”字统领全文，从学习的意义、学习的作用、学习的态度和方法三个角度说明了“学不可以已”的论点。
五、教学设计依据：
各位尊敬的领导、专家、老师：
上午好！我是9号xxx，来自xxxx大学市场营销教研室,2012年6月毕业于xxxx，取得管理学硕士学位。2012年8月进入xxxx大学市场营销教研室担任专职教师。入教1年多以来，我不断努力学习、认真工作，希望自己能够成为一名优秀的人民教师。
【说课稿】
下面进入说课环节。今天我说课的内容是《广告学》第六章广告主题策划。《广告学》是市场营销专业的专业核心课程之一，是专业必修课。该章主要包括两节内容，第一节什么是广告主题，第二节广告主题策划的基础。
一、说教材（地位与作用）（教材分析）
1.在教材选择上，我选用的是《广告学概论》这本教材。该教材较为权威，是普通高等教育“十五国家级规划教材”，主编陈培爱是我国广告学界权威，该教材由高等教育出版社出版。本书的特点是系统性和实践性强，适合针对三本学生的教学活动，同时也适合应用型人才的培养。
2.（1）在学习第六章广告主题策划之前，学生们已经学习了广告目标、广告计划，这为过度到本章内容的学习奠定了基础。（2）在本章中，学生将学习广告主题的概念、广告主题的三要素（广告目标、信息个性和消费心理），广告主题策划的基础（建立产品价值网、建立产品价值链、挖掘产品潜在价值创造产品新价值）。（3）本章的理论知识是学生以后课题（广告创意）学习的基础，它在整个教材中起着承上启下的作用。
二、说学情（学生情况）
该课程的教学对象是市场营销专业大四学生，开课时间是大四上学期。（1）在理论基础方面，学生已经学习过大部分专业课程，为该课程的学习打下了理论基础。甚至有些内容不需要重复学习，比如广告调研。
（2）在实践基础方面，由于在日常生活中接触了大量广告现象，学生也有一定的感性材料积累。这对于该课程的学习是比较有利的。
（3）从学生的兴趣方面来看，由于在生活中接触广告较多，体会到广告在企业营销工作中的重要作用，学生对该课程兴趣较高。
（4）考虑到学生比较关注就业，该课程的教学中就应该强调联系社会实践，多讲案例，为学生毕业后从事相关工作打下基础。
三、说教学目标 1.知识目标：
1）理解广告主题的含义 2）掌握广告主题的三要素
3）掌握如何从三个方面建立产品价值体系
2.能力目标
能够熟练运用产品价值网、产品价值链、产品潜在价值三种方法建立产品价值体系
3.情感目标: 1）培养学生善于观察、善于思考的学习习惯 2）增强学生对广告学的学习兴趣
3）培养学生分析、思考及解决问题的能力
四、说教学的重难点（教学的重难点）重点：广告主题的含义及其三要素
依据：理解广告主题的含义及其组成要素，是广告主题选择与判断的基础
难点：从价值网、价值链、挖掘潜在价值三个方面确定广告主题 依据：涉及的内容比较多，比较复杂
五、说教法与学法（教学方法、学习方法）
教法与学法是统一的。为提高学生对广告学的学习兴趣，提高学习效果，本章课的教学主要采用以下教学方法和学习方法。1.教法主要有：
直观演示法：利用多媒体设备播放广告供学生学习。提问法：在广告片观看结束后进行提问，请学生思考该广告片的广告主题是什么。讲授法：讲解广告主题的概念、三要素、及广告主题策划的基础。讨论法：给出实际案例，要求学生讨论案例中产品的价值网、价值链及潜在价值。
2.学法主要有：听讲、讨论。
六、说教学过程
在这节课的教学过程中，我注重突出重点，条理清晰，紧凑合理。各项活动的安排也注重互动、交流，最大限度的调动学生参与课堂的积极性、主动性。
1、复习提问及导入（4-5分钟）： 提 问：广告目标是什么？
导入：作诗非难，命题为难。题高则诗高，题矮则诗矮。郑板桥
2、讲授新课（40分钟）： 1）理解广告主题的含义 2）把握广告主题的三要素
3）重点掌握从三个方面建立产品价值体系
3、课堂练习及小结（5分钟）课堂巩固新学知识，加深记忆。
4、布置作业。
七、教学反思
1.教学预设中的成功之处
讲稿
附三院
周颖芳
Hello, everyone!Today we’ll talk about the theory of viscera and bowels.I am from the third affiliated hospital of Guangzhou Medical University, my name is Zhou Yingfang.I know you have learnt Yin-yang and the five elements doctrines, which make it easier to understand what we’ll learn today.Objectives
After the learning of this chapter, you should master the concept of viscera and bowels, the characteristics, the main functions of the five zang-organs and the six fu-organs, and the mutual relationships among them.At the beginning of learning TCM, not only you, but also the Chinese students have the problem in understanding and accepting the theory of TCM, because it is really different from that of the western medicine.I hope, from now on, you can make yourselves completely into the thinking mode of traditional Chinese medicine.Just like the picture, western medicine and TCM are two different ways, but their purposes are to deal with diseases and make human beings healthy.Let’s see the meaning of the Chinese words of viscera, 藏象。Zang has two pronunciations, one is cang, which means hiding;another is zang, which means the internal organs.Xiang indicates the phenomena and shapes/forms.These two words together implicate the physiological functions and pathological changes of the organs inside our body.The visceral manifestation theory is an important component of TCM.It consists of the study of the physiology and pathology of all the viscera, and the relationship between viscera.In Chinese medicine, each organ is a complex system which encompasses many aspects, such as, the material-anatomical body parts, mind-body-spirit connection, individual constitution, tissues, organs, and surrounding environment.This paradigm is the core of TCM.We divide the internal organs of the body into three kinds: The first one is five zang-viscera, which includes heart, liver, spleen, lung and kidney.Their physiological function is to produce and store essential qi.Essential qi is composed of the congenital essential qi, and the qi from food and drink by transformation and transportation of the spleen and stomach.The second one is six fu-viscera, they are gallbladder, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, urinary bladder and san-jiao.Their physiological function is receiving, transforming, and transporting food and water.If the passage way is not smooth, been obstructed, the person will feel distension in the stomach or the abdomen area.(The five zang-viscera store the essential qi but not discharge it, so they are full, but cannot be filled up.The six fu-viscera transform and digest the matter but do not store it, thus, they are filled, yet are not full.)
The third type is extraordinary fu-viscera.They are brain, marrow, bone, vessel, gallbladder and uterus.They are distinct from the fu-viscera in function.We’ll go into details later.The five zang-viscera 1．Heart The first content is heart.As we all known that the heart is located in the thorax and guarded externally by the pericardium.Let’s go into further understanding of the heart.The heart has the function of circulating blood through the vessels to nourish the whole body.Maybe it’s easier to understand, because it is similar to that in western medicine.The blood circulation looks like a ring without break, but the normal circulation of blood in the vessels depends on both the heart and vessels.The vessels are the pathways of blood circulation and the heart is the motive power of blood circulation.Heart qi can promote the blood circulation, and transport the nourishment materials to the tissues and organs.The beat of the heart relies on the promoting and regulating function of the heart qi.Shen refers to the control of whole body function in a broad sense.Specifically the heart governs spiritual activities, which includes mental aspects, consciousness and thought.Maybe it is the most difficult part for you to understand.In modern medicine, spiritual activities are the function of the cerebrum, or the cerebrum’s reflection, related to, and experiences with objective things.In TCM, heart governs the physiological activities of the organs and body orifices.The material basis of spiritual activities is blood.In physiological condition, if the function of governing spiritual activities is normal, one will be full of vitality, have a clear head, and be quick in both thought and response.But, in the pathological condition, the patient will be upset, have depressive psychosis and mania caused by phlegm-fire disturbing the heart, insomnia, frequent dreaming and palpitation.Here is an example, a person named Fan Jin in a novel of Qing dynasty, lived in poor, he had experienced the exams of more than 20 times, and all failed.Until nearly 60 years old, he got the former second degree candidate in the provincial examination.He was very very happy, and became mad.If we use TCM theory to explain it, it is because the overjoy emotion hurts the heart.In TCM, heart has close relationship with sweat.Sweat is derived from body fluid, and is important component part of blood.There are sayings, such as blood and sweat share a common source, sweat is the fluid from the heart.In normal condition, sweat can moist the skin, while too much sweating may injury heart blood and heart qi.For example, hot environment, too much clothes, or excessive exercises may cause abnormal sweat.And the patient may feel palpitation and feeling of fear.A much more serious condition is known as depletion of yang resulting from profuse sweat, which leads to night sweating.The heart opens to the tongue and manifests on the face.In acupuncture, the large divergent collateral of the heart meridian goes up to the tongue and the face.These areas are rich in blood vessels.You all know a TCM practitioner often looks at the tongue and face, so as to help he/she to make diagnosis.It is said that the tongue is the sprout of the heart.The physiological functions of the heart can be detected through changes in both color and luster of the face.In physiological condition, the heart functions are well, and the heart-blood is abundant, the face will be ruddy and lustrous, and the tongue will be light red and free in motion.In the pathological condition, the manifestations depend on the concrete reason.If the heart-blood is deficient, there will be a pallor complexion and pale tongue.If the heart blood is stagnated, purplish and dark complexion, echymoses or petechiae will appear.Dysfunction of heart in governing mental activities or spirit leads to stiff tongue, difficult in speaking, or aphasis.If the heart-fire is flaring up, there will be red tongue and carbuncles。
Hair is dependent upon the nourishment of blood, so it is said hair is the extension of blood.Pericardium It has the function of protecting the heart.In TCM, exogenous factors that invading the heart often first attack the pericardium.For example, febrile disease with high fever, coma, deep red tongue is known as “heat invading the pericardium” in TCM.2.Lung Governs Qi(1)Governs air breath “getting rid of the stale and taking in the fresh”(2)Governs Qi of the whole body Production of “pectoral qi”, which is composed of fresh air from nature inhaled by the lungs and essential qi from food, water, and stored in the thorax.Qi movement(ascent, descent, exit and entrance)of the whole body In charge of dispersing and descending The function of dispersing and descending involves the distribution of qi, blood, and body-fluid to the zang-fu organs, the muscles, skin and hair.Pathology: cough, difficulty in breathing;fullness of the chest, phlegm Smooth the water passages It means the ascending and descending functions of the lung qi have the function of smoothing and regulating the distribution, circulation and discharging of the water inside body.Discharge the metabolized water in the body in four processes: urine, sweat, respiration, and feces.“the lung is the upper source of water” Governs the skin and hair The skin and hair in this case, represent the entire surface of the body including skin, sweat gland pores, and hair.They acts as a barrier against the invasion of exogenous pathogenic factors.The lung spreads defensive-qi to the body surface, “warms the tissues between the skin and muscles, replenishes the skin, nourishes the muscles, and regulates the opening and closing of the pores”.Pathology: aversion to cold, fever, nasal obstruction, nasal discharge, cough, or even difficult breathing.Opens to the nose Nose is the gate of the lung, and the passage for air enter and exit.Proper function of the lung-qi: clear, unobstructed nasal breathing, smelling Pathology: stuffy nose, running nose, sneezing, itching of the throat.3.Spleen Governs transformation and transportation Substances:(1)food Function: digesting, absorbing and transporting nutritive substances Pathology: poor appetite, abdominal distention, diarrhea, lassitude, and emaciation(2)water Function: promotes water metabolism, moisten and nourish various tissues of the body, avoid retention of water, maintain water metabolism balance.Pathology: edema, phlegm-dampness syndrome, diarrhea Controls blood Function: controlling blood and circulating it within the vessels and prevents blood from extravasating.Pathology: bleeding Sends up essence “spleen qi is in charge of ascending”
Raising up Food Essence, raising up the Internal Organs Pathology: “sinking of the middle-jiao”
chronic diarrhea with proctoptosis uterine prolapse Dominates muscles and limbs Pathology: thin muscles, forceless, flaccid and atrophied limbs Opens to the mouth, manifests on the lips Appetite and taste Pathology: anorexia, tastelessness, or a sweet or sticky taste in the mouth, pale and lusterless lips 4.Liver Regulates the smooth flow of qi(1)Emotions Hypoactive: depression, sorrow, suspicion, sighing, and hypochondriac distress.Hyperactive: irritability, dizziness, vertigo, insomnia, and dream disturbed sleep.(2)Digestion and absorption The ascent and descent of spleen and stomach qi The normal secretion of bile Pathology: poor appetite, indigestion, belching, acid regurgitation, abdominal fullness, and diarrhea.(3)The smooth flow of qi and blood Maintaining normal circulation of qi and blood Pathology: distending pain in the hypochondrium, breast, or lower abdomen.qi is the commander of blood, qi stagnation will be followed by blood stagnation----stabbing pain in the hypochondrium, abdominal masses, irregular menstruation, dysmenorrhea, and amenorrhea.Liver can smooth the flow of qi in the san-jiao to regulate water passages.Otherwise, edema or ascites may appear.The smooth flow of liver qi results in normal sexual function.Hypoactive: impotence and premature ejaculation, or amenorrhea or dysmenorrhea.Hyperactive:
males----over indulgence
in sexual activities，and spermatorrhea females----dreams
of
sexual
fantasies，an
early
menstrual cycle, or metrorrhagia Stores blood Function: storing blood and regulating the volume of blood in circulation.Pathology: liver blood deficiency----blurred vision, night blindness, contracture of muscles and tendons, and motor impairment.women----scanty amenorrhea Dominates tendons and manifests on the nails Pathology: numb and impaired movement of limbs, tremor or spasm.heat-evil----loss of fluids----convulsion, opisthotonos, clenched jaw “the nails are the excretion of the tendons”
Opens to the eyes 5.Kidney The kidneys store vital essence, and are in charge of growth, development and reproduction Congenital and acquired essence Kidney qi in growth, development, reproduction and sexual function.Governs water metabolism
flow of menstrual blood
(1)in distributing body to nourish and moisten tissue(2)the discharge of utilized water by the tissue Governs the reception of Qi “the lungs govern respiration and the kidneys govern reception of qi” Kidneys dominate bone and manufacture marrow, which forms the brain and manifests in the hair.Pathology:
deficiency
of
kidney
essence----
weak or underdeveloped bone, delayed closure of the fontanel, weak bones in children Teeth are an extension of bone.The kidneys manufacture marrow, and the brain is the sea of marrow.The nourishment of hair comes from blood.The kidney stores vital essence which can be transformed into blood.The kidneys open to the ears and have two yin parts.The hearing function of the ear depends on nourishment from kidney essence qi.The two yin parts of the kidneys are the anterior and posterior yin(or the genitals and the anus).Six Fu-viscera
1.Gallbladder Six fu-viscera: hollow in structure, excrete bile to help digest food.Extraodinary fu-viscera: the bile stored in the gallbladder is transformed from the essential qi with similar functions of the five zang-viscera.Function: store, concentrate and excrete bile In terms of mental state, it is in charge of judgment and decision making.Pathology: distending pain in the hypochondriac region, poor appetite, abdominal distension, loose stool, bitter taste in the mouth, vomiting yellow-green and bitter fluid, jaundice.2.Stomach Location: below the diaphragm Function:
(1)Reservoir of foodstuff “barn”, “sea of water and cereal”, “reservoir of foodstuff”(2)Descending function of the stomach Along with the ascending function of the spleen The function of the whole digestive system Pathology: failure of descending of the stomach-qi may cause the adverse rising of the stomach-qi, marked by belching acid regurgitation, nausea, vomiting, hiccup, etc.3.Small Intestine Function:(1)Stores and digests food(2)Separates the clear from the turbid Pathology: fullness of the abdomen, pain of the abdomen, diarrhea, short of urine.4.Large Intestine
Function:
(1)Passes and eliminates waste(2)Governs body-fluid Pathology: constipation or loose stool, diarrhea 5.Urinary Bladder Function:(1)Stores urine(2)Discharges urine
The turbid fluid is formed after the water metabolism, and is transported downwards to the kidneys, where it turns into urine by the qi transformation of kidney.6.San-Jiao
The concept of San-Jiao has two meanings.First, it is one of the six Fu-organs and secondly, it represents the partition of human body, i.e.the generic term of the upper energizer, middle energizer and lower energizer.（1）San-Jiao of the six Fu-organs Function: passing through the original qi and water.San-Jiao is the route for the circulation of original qi and water.Original qi is the most fundamental qi of the human body, the motive power of human vital activities, which is derived from the kidney.The distribution and excretion of the water inside the body are accomplished by the synergistic function of many organs, including lung, spleen and kidney, etc.But the normal circulation of water must be based on the channel function of San-Jiao.（2）Partition Meaning of San-Jiao
As the region, San-Jiao can be divided into three parts, i.e.the upper energizer, middle energizer and lower energizer.It includes the whole body from the head to the feet.Each energizer has its own physiological characteristics.Generally, the chest part above the diaphragm, include heart, lungs, head and face, is called upper energizer.Sometimes, the upper limbs are attributed to the upper energizer too.Upper energizer can disperse the defense qi, distribute the food essence and fluid, nourish and moisten the whole body.Middle energizer refers to the upper abdomen between the diaphragm and the umbilicus, which is consisted by the spleen and stomach.Middle energizer has the function of digesting, absorbing and distributing the food essence and fluid, and producing qi and blood as well.The part below the umbilicus is named lower energizer, which includes small intestine, large intestine, liver, kidneys, bladder and uterus and lower limbs as well.It has the function of discharging the residues and urine.Extraordinary Fu-Organs The extraordinary Fu-organs include brain, marrow, bone, vessels, gallbladder and uterus.Most of them have no internal-external relation with other organs and no attachment with the five elements, except gallbladder with liver, as one of the six Fu-organs.1.Brain Brain is formed by the accumulation of marrow, and then it is called the sea of marrow.（1）Dominate Vital Activities and Spirits Brain is an organ that can produce recognition, emotions, will and behaviors, and it is also the key position of spirit activities.Physiology: full of spirit, clear consciousness, quick thinking, strong memory, clear language and normal emotions.Pathology: apathetic, slow reaction, memory deterioration, manic and irritability, and even coma.（2）Dominate Sense and Movement It means that the eyesight, hearing, speak and movement of the human body are related to the brain.Physiology: good eyesight, sharp hearing, keen sense of smell, normal sensation, light and powerful movement.Pathology: dim vision, loss of hearing, poor sense of smell, dull sensation, fatigue and even hemiplegia.2.Uterus（1）Controlling Menstruation Pathology: irregular
menstruation，such
as
amenorrhea, hypermenorrhea, hypomenorrhea, or metrorrhagia.Since women take blood as the fundament, and the heart controls blood, liver stores blood, spleen produces qi and blood, the menstrual bleeding and cycle are closely related to the physiological functions of the heart, liver and spleen.（2）Dominating Pregnancy The uterus gets the ability of pregnancy at the time of the first menstrual bleeding.After the pregnancy, the uterus becomes a main organ for protecting and developing the fetus.Mutual Relations among the Five Zang-Organs（1）Heart and Lung
Both the heart and lungs are located above the diaphragm.The heart governs the blood and vessels, and the lungs control qi and respiration.The relationship between heart and lungs mainly manifests as the relation of qi and blood.（2）Heart and Spleen Heart governs blood and spleen generates blood.Heart can promote blood circulation, and spleen controls blood and prevents it from bleeding.The relation between heart and spleen are mainly manifested in two aspects, the production of blood and the circulation of blood.（3）Heart and Liver
Heart can promote blood circulation and liver stores blood.Heart controls Shen, while liver governs free flow of qi and adjusts emotional activities.The relation between heart and liver is manifested on two aspects, blood circulation and emotional activities.（4）Heart and Kidney
Heart belongs to fire in the five elements theory, and it is located in the upper part of human body, so it is subordinated to yang.However, kidney belongs to water in the five elements theory, which is located in the lower part of human body, and subordinated to yin.For the ascending-descending theory of water and fire, Yin-Yang as well, it’s good for those at the bottom to go upwards, and those on the top to go downwards.（5）Lung and Spleen
Lungs govern the respiration, and spleen can generate food essence by the function of transportation and transformation.Lungs regulate water metabolism and spleen is also in charge of water metabolism.The relation between lungs and spleen mainly shows in two aspects, production of qi and water metabolism.（6）Lung and Liver
Lungs has descending functions and liver is characterized by dispersing.The relation between lungs and liver is mainly about the ascending and descending of qi movements.（7）Lung and Kidney
Lungs regulate waterways, and kidneys govern water.Lungs dominate respiration and kidneys govern the reception of qi.The relation between lungs and kidneys are mainly manifested by two aspects, water metabolism and respiration.（8）Liver and Spleen
Liver governs the free flow of qi and spleen has the function of transportation and transformation.Liver stores blood and spleen can generate and control blood.The relation between liver and spleen is mainly manifested on two aspects, digestion and absorption, blood regulation.（9）Liver and Kidney
Liver stores blood and kidney stores essence.Liver governs the free flow of qi and kidney is in charge of storage.For the five elements theory, liver belongs to the wood and kidney is attributed to water.They have mother-son relations.The relationship between liver and kidney is mainly manifested on three aspects: essence and blood have a common source, interdependence between storing and discharging, mutual nourishment and interaction between yin and yang.（10）Spleen and Kidney
Spleen is the postnatal base of life, while kidney is the congenital foundation of human body.Spleen participates in the water metabolism by its function of transportation and transformation and kidney governs water.The relation between spleen and kidney is mainly manifested on two aspects, postnatal and congenital bases, and water metabolism.Relations among the Six Fu-Organs The six Fu-organs include gallbladder, stomach, large intestine, small intestine, bladder and San-Jiao, all of which are characterized by transporting food and distributing fluids.The relations among the six Fu-organs are mainly manifested as the aspects of the digestion and absorption of food, distribution of fluid and discharge of residues.Relations among Zang-organs and Fu-organs（1）Heart and Small Intestine
Their relation is mainly manifested on the pathological aspect.If the heart has excessive fire, it will affect the small intestine along the meridians and scanty, red, painful or bloody urine occurs.If the small intestine has excessive heat, it also can influence heart by the upward flow of heat along the meridian and the symptoms include restlessness, red tongue and ulcers in the mouth and on the tongue.（2）Lung and Large Intestine
For the physiology, the descending of lung qi is helpful to the transportation of large intestine.The normal transportation of large intestine can assist the descending of lung qi.For the pathology, if the lungs cannot descend, the fluid will not go downwards and there will be constipation.If there is excessive heat in the large intestine, the qi of Fu-organs will not be smooth, which is able to affect the descending of lungs with symptoms of fullness in the chest, cough and asthma.If the lung qi is deficient and the large intestine is too weak to transport the residues, there will be constipation due to qi deficiency and difficulty in discharging feces.（3）Spleen and Stomach
Spleen and stomach accomplish the digestion, absorption and transportation of food together to nourish the human body, so they are called the postnatal basis.The relation between spleen and stomach is mainly manifested on three aspects:-coordination of receiving and transportation and transformation,-harmony between ascending and descending,-adjustment of dryness and dampness.（4）Liver and Gallbladder
The bile is derived from the liver and the storage and discharge of bile depend on the regulation of liver(free flow of qi).And the smooth discharging of bile is beneficial to the function of liver in governing free flow of qi.（5）Kidney and Bladder
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