统计学中英文名词解释（精选7篇）
A
abscissa 横坐标
absence rate 缺勤率
absolute number 绝对数
absolute value 绝对值
accident error 偶然误差
accumulated frequency 累积频数
alternative hypothesis 备择假设
analysis of data 分析资料
analysis of variance(ANOVA)方差分析
arith-log paper 算术对数纸
arithmetic mean 算术均数
assumed mean 假定均数
arithmetic weighted mean 加权算术均数
asymmetry coefficient 偏度系数
average平均数
average deviation平均差
B
bar chart 直条图、条图
bias 偏性
binomial distribution 二项分布
biometrics 生物统计学
bivariate normal population 双变量正态总体
C
cartogram 统计图
case fatality rate(or case mortality)病死率
census 普查
chi-sguare(X2)test 卡方检验
central tendency 集中趋势
class interval 组距
classification 分组、分类
cluster sampling 整群抽样
coefficient of correlation 相关系数
coefficient of regression 回归系数
coefficient of variability(or coefficieut of variation)变异系数
collection of data 收集资料
column 列（栏）
combinative table 组合表
combined standard deviation 合并标准差
combined variance(or poolled variance)合并方差
complete survey 全面调查
completely correlation 完全相关
completely random design 完全随机设计
confidence interval 可信区间，置信区间
confidence level 可信水平，置信水平
confidence limit 可信限，置信限
constituent ratio 构成比，结构相对数
continuity 连续性
control 对照
control group 对照组
coordinate 坐标
correction for continuity 连续性校正
correction for grouping 归组校正
correction number 校正数
correction value 校正值
correlation 相关，联系
correlation analysis 相关分析
correlation coefficient 相关系数
critical value 临界值
cumulative frequency 累积频率
D
data 资料
degree of confidence 可信度，置信度
degree of dispersion 离散程度
degree of freedom 自由度
degree of variation 变异度
dependent variable 应变量
design of experiment 实验设计
deviation from the mean 离均差
diagnose accordance rate 诊断符合率
difference with significance 差别不显著
difference with significance 差别显著
discrete variable 离散变量
dispersion tendency 离中趋势
distribution 分布、分配
E
effective rate 有效率
eigenvalue 特征值
enumeration data 计数资料
equation of linear regression 线性回归方程
error 误差
error of replication 重复误差
error of type II Ⅱ型错误，第二类误差
error of type I Ⅰ型错误，第一类误差
estimate value 估计值
event 事件
experiment design 实验设计
experiment error 实验误差
experimental group 实验组
extreme value 极值
F
fatality rate 病死率
field survey 现场调查
fourfold table 四格表
freguency 频数
freguency distribution 频数分布
G
Gaussian curve 高斯曲线
geometric mean 几何均数
grouped data 分组资料
H
histogram 直方图
homogeneity of variance 方差齐性
homogeneity test of variances 方差齐性检验
hypothesis test 假设检验
hypothetical universe 假设总体
I
incidence rate 发病率
incomplete survey 非全面调检
indepindent variable 自变量
indivedual difference 个体差异
infection rate 感染率
inferior limit 下限
initial data 原始数据
inspection of data 检查资料
intercept 截距
interpolation method 内插法 interval estimation 区间估计
inverse correlation 负相关
K
kurtosis coefficient 峰度系数
L
latin sguare design 拉丁方设计
least significant difference 最小显著差数
least square method 最小平方法，最小乘法
leptokurtic distribution 尖峭态分布
leptokurtosis 峰态，峭度
linear chart 线图
linear correlation 直线相关
linear regression 直线回归
linear regression eguation 直线回归方程
link relative 环比
logarithmic normal distribution 对数正态分布
logarithmic scale 对数尺度
lognormal distribution 对数正态分布 lower limit 下限
M
matched pair design 配对设计
mathematical statistics 数理统计（学）maximum value 极大值
mean 均值
mean of population 总体均数
mean square 均方
mean variance 均方，方差
measurement data 讲量资料
median 中位数
medical statistics 医学统计学
mesokurtosis 正态峰
method of least squares 最小平方法，最小乘法
method of grouping 分组法
method of percentiles 百分位数法
mid-value of class 组中值
minimum value 极小值
mode 众数
moment 动差，矩
morbidity 患病率
mortality 死亡率
N
natality 出生率
natural logarithm 自然对数
negative correlation 负相关
negative skewness 负偏志
no correlation 无相关
non-linear correlation 非线性相关
non-parametric statistics 非参数统计
normal curve 正态曲线
normal deviate 正态离差
normal distribution 正态分布
normal population 正态总体
normal probability curve 正态概率曲线
normal range 正常范围
normal value 正常值
normal kurtosis 正态峰
normality test 正态性检验
nosometry 患病率
null hypothesis 无效假设，检验假设
O
observed unit 观察单位
observed value 观察值
one-sided test 单测检验
one-tailed test 单尾检验
order statistic 顺序统计量
ordinal number 秩号
ordinate 纵坐标
P
pairing data 配对资料
parameter 参数
percent 百分率
percentage 百分数，百分率
percentage bar chart 百分条图
percentile 百分位数
pie diagram 园图
placebo 安慰剂
planning of survey 调查计划
point estimation 点估计
population 总体，人口
population mean 总体均数
population rate 总体率
population variance 总体方差
positive correlation 正相关
positive skewness 正偏态
power of a test 把握度，检验效能
prevalence rate 患病率
probability 概率，机率
probability error 偶然误差
proportion 比，比率
prospective study 前瞻研究
prospective survey 前瞻调查
public health statistics 卫生统计学
Q
quality eontrol 质量控制
quartile 四分位数
R
random 随机
random digits 随机数字
random error 随机误差
random numbers table 随机数目表
random sample 随机样本
random sampling 随机抽样
random variable 随机变量
randomization 随机化
randomized blocks 随机区组,随机单位组
randomized blocks analysis of variance 随机单位组方差分析
randomized blocks design 随机单位组设计
randomness 随机性
range 极差、全距
range of normal values 正常值范围
rank 秩,秩次,等级
rank correlation 等级相关
rank correlation coefficent 等级相关系数
rank-sum test 秩和检验
rank test 秩(和)检验
ranked data 等级资料
rate 率
ratio 比
recovery rate 治愈率
registration 登记
regression 回归
regression analysis 回归分析
regression coefficient 回归系数
regression eguation 回归方程
relative number 相对数
relative ratio 比较相对数
relative ratio with fixed base 定基比
remainder error 剩余误差
replication 重复
retrospective survey 回顾调查
Ridit analysis 参照单位分析
Ridit value 参照单位值
S
sample 样本
sample average 样本均数
sample size 样本含量
sampling 抽样
sampling error 抽样误差
sampling statistics 样本统计量
sampling survay 抽样调查
scaller diagram 散点图
schedule of survey 调查表
semi-logarithmic chart 半对数线图
semi-measursement data 半计量资料 semi-guartile range 四分位数间距
sensitivity 灵敏度
sex ratio 性比例
sign test 符号检验
significance 显著性,意义
significance level 显著性水平
significance test 显著性检验
significant difference 差别显著
simple random sampling 单纯随机抽样
simple table 简单表
size of sample 样本含量
skewness 偏态
slope 斜率
sorting data 整理资料
sorting table 整理表
sources of variation 变异来源
square deviation 方差
standard deviation(SD)标准差
standard error(SE)标准误
standard error of estimate 标准估计误差
standard error of the mean 均数的标准误
standardization 标准化
standardized rate 标化率
standardized normal distribution 标准正态分布
statistic 统计量
statistics 统计学
statistical induction 统计图
statistical inference 统计归纳
statistical map 统计推断
statistical method 统计地图
statistical survey 统计方法
statistical table 统计调查
statistical test 统计表
statistical treatment 统计检验
stratified sampling 统计处理
stochastic variable 分层抽样
sum of cross products of 随机变量
deviation from mean 离均差积和
sum of ranks 秩和
sum of sguares of deviation from mean 离均差平方和
superior limit 上限
survival rate 生存率
symmetry 对称(性)
systematic error 系统误差
systematic sampling 机械抽样
T
t-distribution t分布
t-test t检验
tabulation method 划记法
test of normality 正态性检验
test of one-sided 单侧检验
test of one-tailed 单尾检验
test of significance 显著性检验
test of two-sided 双侧检验
test of two-tailed 双尾检验
theoretical frequency 理论频数
theoretical number 理论数
treatment 处理
treatment factor 处理因素
treatment of date 数据处理
two-factor analysis of variance 双因素方差分析
two-sided test 双侧检验
two-tailed test 双尾检验
type I error 第一类误差
type II error 第二类误差
typical survey 典型调查
U
u test u检验
universe 总体,全域
ungrouped data 未分组资料
upper limit 上限
V
variable 变量
variance 方差,均方
variance analysis 方差分析
variance ratio 方差比
variate 变量
variation coefficient 变异系数
velocity of development 发展速度velocity of increase 增长速度
W
weight 权数
weighted mean 加权均数
Z
Heaps定律 (Heaps’Law) 是一个语言学中词汇增长的经验法则, 它描述的是一个由各种词汇组成的, 不断生成的文本或文本集合中词汇所占的比例。Heaps定律可以用公式表示为, 其中, 表示文本长度为s时, 文本中的词汇量。c和θ是经验系数。在英语语言环境下, c通常在10到100的范围内, θ一般在0.4到0.6的范围内。Heaps定律描绘的是, 随着文本长度的增加, 文本不断地生成, 文本词汇量的增加率随之边际递减。Heaps定律已广泛地应用到了语言学、经济学、社会学、计算机科学、生物学、地理学乃至整个生产应用中。
我们在某种语言的背景中来讨论，随着文本逐渐的加入这种语言的“词汇库”，该词汇库中的词汇量应该随之增加。但由于新加入的文本有很多是词汇的重复使用，所以词汇库中词汇的增加速度是低于文本长度的增加速度的。一种情况是被创造出来的新词汇。例如，随着互联网络越来越多的被我们所使用，就由网络生成了许多语言，被别人接纳和使用，诸如“杯具”和“给力”等词汇。这种词汇会被人们接受和使用，但其生存周期往往相对较短。
二、Heaps定律在中英文文本中的验证
本文使用C语言和R语言来对文本进行处理和统计。考察文本中词汇量随着文本长度的增加的变化规律。具体地说，就是用C语言对统计文本进行分析处理并输出统计结果到文本文件，用R语言来读取该文本文件从而对分析结果统计并作图。
下面我们对英文文本《Relativity the especial and general theory》和中文文本《江南小镇》中Heaps定律的经验法则成立的情况进行统计验证。
中文语言与英文语言就很大的不同。中文语言文本在统计验证时会遇到的一个最大的问题就是：中文语言词汇的切分。一方面，英文文本的词汇由空格来区分，每个空格就是一个单独的词。而中文文本只有句子之间用标点符号分割。另一方面，中文文本中有字和词的区别。例如，“是”、“的”和“我”就是单独的字，而“学校”、“运动”属于词，甚至还有四字成语，英文语言则没有这种区别。虽然目前也有诸如中科院计算所ICTCLAS汉语词法分析系统等软件，但其智能度不高，实际使用起来往往还需要进行大量的人工复查工作，对中文文本的处理耗时较高。所以在借助计算机对文本进行统计分析的情况下，多数研究者都会使用英文来进行处理，而避开中文。
为了对我们常用的中文语言也进行一番Heaps定律的验证，本文特别选取了一篇余秋雨的散文《江南小镇》作为中文样本。经过统计这篇文章共9, 334个字，5, 515个词，2, 272个词汇。使用的是人工分词的方法，分词准确度较高。统计结果如表格1所示：
可以看出，对Heaps定律统计验证的结果还是成功的，各文本的词汇量在图上不同程度的呈现出随文本长度的增加，其增长速度边际递减。从《江南小镇》样本的统计结果图上看去，曲线有明显的弯曲，但弯曲程度相对较小，似乎Heaps定律对中文的适用性不如英文，为此我们对这两个文本进一步运用最小二乘法回归分析来进行定量分析。
三、中文和英文文本Heaps定律最小二乘法回归分析
本节运用统计学中回归分析的方法对Heaps定律文本长度与词汇量的关系进行定量的分析。我们以上一章中的英文文本《广义狭义相对论》和《江南小镇》为分析对象，分别进行最小二乘法线性回归拟合。
由Heaps定律，对其两边去对数，转化为线性回归模型：
其中, ，θ是未知参数，θ是回归系数，是不可控制的随机误差。取置信水平，回归分析结果如图表1和图表2所示，并且都能够通过假设检验。
四、中文文本与英文文本回归分析结果的比较
在上一节的结果中，我们对中文《江南小镇》的统计结果进行了直观上的解释，认为： (1) 相对英文文本长度比较而言，我们5515的中文文本长度有可能不足以体现出Heaps定律; (2) 似乎Heaps定律对中文的适用性不如英文; (3) 中文样本的平均新词进入率高于英样本。
但从本节的回归分析结果来看，中文文本对Heaps定律的拟合程度之优超出我们的想象，针对本章统计的两篇中英文样本，对比列表如下。
摘 要：以往对英文广告的研究多集中在翻译、语用等方面，本文在功能语言学的框架内从语法隐喻理论的角度来分析广告中的名词化现象。名词化使过程、特征、抽象概念等具备实体特征。结果表明，名词化赋予广告语言以简洁、正式、庄重的特征，这些特征有助于广告目的的实现。名词化使广告语言具备了隐喻意义，具有双重的语义特征。
关键词：英文广告；名词化；语法隐喻
[中图分类号]H030
[文献标识码]A
[文章编号]1006-2831（2013）11-0176-3 doi：10.3969/j.issn.1006-2831.2013.04.047
1 . 引言
近年来，英文广告方面的相关研究逐步增多，但研究的焦点主要集中在广告语言的翻译、修辞等方面。笔者以“英文广告”或“广告英语”为关键词对CNKI（中国知网）2003年至2013年间的核心期刊以及CSSCI期刊进行检索，共检索到文章84篇。笔者初步分析之后发现，研究广告语言特色（与“商品、消费者”有关）的文章3篇，如任婷婷（2007）等；研究广告语言隐喻及翻译策略的文章1篇，如阳兰梅（2011）；研究广告语言人际功能的文章1篇，如张红霞（2009），研究广告句法文体特征文章一篇，如李惠芬（2006），其余文章均为翻译技巧（黄孟芳，2006）、翻译策略（邹春荣、杨晓斌，2009）、语言修辞（卞瑞晨，2006）以及语用分析（张锦，2010）等方面的研究。结果表明对英文广告语言本身的功能研究尚显不足。因此，本文拟从功能语言学的相关理论出发来分析英文广告的语言特色及其功能。
2 . 语法隐喻和名词化
根据朱永生（2006： 83）：语法隐喻（grammatical metaphor）这个概念是韩礼德（M.A.K. Halliday）在1985年出版的《功能语法导论》（An Introduction to Functional Grammar）一书中首次提出。这一理论的提出是以韩礼德为代表的功能语言学派对隐喻理论研究的重大贡献。韩礼德把语法隐喻分为概念隐喻和人际隐喻（胡壮麟，2000： 89），本文只涉及概念隐喻。二者下面还有分支，如图所示：
韩礼德认为，人们可以通过及物性系统把人类的经验分成六种不同的过程：物质过程、心理过程、关系过程、行为过程、言语过程和存在过程（胡壮麟等，2005：75-84）。语言是人类社会活动的产物，是一个社会意义系统。功能语言学派把直接表达或接近事物变化的意义表达称为“一致式”（congruence）。比如儿童的语言，它们通常不含曲折、隐晦意义，是最简单最直白的表达。而间接或曲折地表达意义则为“非一致式”（non-congruence）或“隐喻式”，因为它体现的是语义语法范畴间的非正常非自然的关系，所以这种“非一致式”的表达就构成语法隐喻。赵德全、李伟（2010：131）指出：这种非一致式表达最常见的现象之一是使用名词词组来表达过程和特征，这就是名词化现象。韩礼德（1994：352）认为，名词化是一种语法隐喻，是用名词来体现本来要用动词或形容词所体现的“过程”或“特征”。他还指出名词化是英语中生成语法隐喻最重要的源泉（汤斌，2007：15）。从语义语法范畴看，名词化具有双重的语义特征：语法角度上主要是将动词、形容词等其他词类转化成名词的过程，语义角度上主要是将非实体隐喻转化为实体的过程（汤斌，2007：15）。
如：（1） a It can make a different world.
b It can make a world of difference.
（PSA www.wfp.org）
（1a）是一致式，（1b）是隐喻式，因为（1a）中的“different”这一形容词所体现的“特征”转化成了（1b）中的名词“difference”。
（2） a It brings together cities and communities to act positively.
b It brings together cities and communities on the journey to positive action.
（PSA www.panda.org）
（2a）为一致式，（2b）则为隐喻式。“positive action”这一名词词组承载了“act positively”这个动词词组的“动作过程”。
3 . 英文广告中的名词化
众所周知，广告是一种具有强大的交际功能和明确的目的性的特殊文体，而它的召唤、劝导、说服功能的实现很大程度上依赖于其语言词汇的选择。由于广告受众层次多样，水平参差不齐，因此语言选择显得尤为重要。一方面要避免语言晦涩难懂，另一方面又要避免语言过于口语化和太随便（王晋军，2003）。晦涩难懂的语言不利于向受众传递信息，导致商家与消费者很难沟通；口语化的语言透出的是不正式感，无法取得受众的信任；这两种情况都是广告语言应该避免的。而名词化的使用，既能够使广告文字简洁，又能够加强其语言的正式、庄重感，而简洁、正式、庄重等要素都是广告功能和目的实现的重要助力。
笔者收集了英文公益广告（public service ads，缩写为PSA）和商业广告（commercial ads，缩写为CA）共计80条，它们分别来自杂志Time， Fortune， Newsweek， Business Week以及著名英文网站如美国广告委员会网站、世界自然基金会网站和国家地理网站。本文只涉及这80条广告的正文部分（不包括广告的标题、口号等其他部分），笔者经过仔细研究后发现名词化现象共计142个。由于名词化能够把动作过程、特征以及抽象概念等物化，也即是使这些过程、特征、概念具备实体化的性质，因而更能够向受众传递客观、具体的产品或服务等的印象，从而实现其劝导、说服的目的。
如：（3） a We are obligated to help them.
b We have an obligation to come to their aid. （PSA www.panda.org）
与（1）（2）相同，（3）也是一则公益广告，（3a）是一致式表达，（3b）是隐喻式表达，名词“obligation”和“aid”分别把“be obligated to”和“help”这两个动作过程实体化，这一转化使得广告语言变得正式、严肃，让读者真实地体会到一种责任感，从而采取行动提供帮助。
（4） a To create the sustainable value.
b The creation of the sustainable value. （CA Newsweek August， 2009）
（5） a A simple strategy that has always separated persons who win from those who lose.
b A simple strategy that has always separated winners from losers. （CA Newsweek October， 2009）
在以上两则商业广告中，（4a）和（5a）是一致式表达，（4b）和（5b）是隐喻式。“creation”是动词“create”的名词化形式，把这个过程物化成具有实体性质。而在（5b）中，“winners”和“losers”这两个名词分别是由两个小句“persons who win”和“those who lose”转化而成。显然，转化后字数减少，但信息量不变，也就是说，两个小句的信息量压缩到两个名词里去了，表达效果更简洁。范文芳、汪明杰（2003）指出，名词化的使用“使我们能够避免很多拖泥带水的表达，因为它表达的是本来需要用从句表达的意义”（Jespersen， 1924： 136）。
（6） a These wrist instruments are all equipped with“motors” which perform highly.
b These wrist instruments are all equipped with high-performance “motors”.
（CA Fortune May， 2009）
这是一则手表的广告，（6a）是“一致式”表达，小句“which perform highly”修饰“motors”，表达直白；（6b）是“隐喻式”表达，小句“which perform highly”浓缩成了一个名词“high-performance”，使得表达简洁、正式，该名词直接置于中心词“motors”前，在第一时间把手表的高性能传递给受众。
（7） a A smarter business needs to think much smartly.
b A smarter business needs smarter thinking.（CA Business Week September， 2009）
这是IBM广告语中的一句。同样，（7a）是“一致式”表达，动作过程用了动词词组 “think much smartly”表达，语义是单层的。（7b）是“隐喻式”表达，名词“thinking”取代了a句中的动词词组，把这个“过程”实体化了。
4 . 讨论
韩礼德（2000：269）指出，语法隐喻基本上就是名词化的趋势。广告中名词化的使用使语言显得正式、庄重，使其表达客观、简洁，因而更具说服力。以上例句中的a句皆为一致式表达，用动词表达“过程”，用形容词表达“特征”，语义特征是单层的。而b句则是采用了具有双重语义特征的名词化表达，因而语言正式、严肃。同时，名词化的表达把“过程”、“特征”等抽象概念实体化，给人的印象是具体的、能够真实感受到的，这就拉近了广告与消费者的距离，更利于广告目的的实现。在这142个名词化中，大部分为动词（词组）或形容词（词组）的名词化以及小句的名词化现象，只有一例为人际隐喻（情态动词must转化成名词must），本文不作详述。但是，名词化也并不是越多越好，从统计结果可以看出，平均每条广告语中名词化现象不到2个。换言之，过度使用名词化会使语言的信息密度过于强大，让人读起来咬文嚼字难以理解。只有恰当地使用名词化才能够起到画龙点睛的作用。
5 . 结束语
广告是一种特殊文体，其明确的目的决定了它的语言必须具有强大的沟通能力，而且必须用尽可能短的篇幅给人留下最深刻的印象，达到劝诱的目的。因此，词汇的选择至关重要。而名词化这一最重要的语法隐喻工具，能够在广告语言中担此重任。从广告语体的特色来说，名词化的使用让广告语言简洁、正式、庄重，有力地浓缩了信息量，加强了语言的说服力；从语法隐喻这一理论角度来说，名词化是词汇在语法结构中的使用从而体现出隐喻意义（朱永生，2006）。通过以上例句可以看出，广告中的名词化都使得语言具备了隐喻意义，具有双重的语义特征。诚然，广告目的的实现不完全是依靠名词化就能解决的，广告语言中丰富的评价资源及其与名词化、隐喻之间的关系等都能左右广告语言的效果，这些内容笔者将另文讨论。
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第十五章
MEASUREING A NATION’S INCOME一国收入的衡量
Microeconomics the study of how households and firms make decisions and how they interact in markets.微观经济学：研究家庭和企业如何做出决策，以及他们如何在市场上相互交易。
Macroeconomics the study of economy-wide phenomena,including inflation,unemployment,and economic growth 宏观经济学：研究整体经济现象，包括通货膨胀、失业和经济增长。
GDP is the market value of final goods and services produced within a country in a given period of time.国内生产总值GDP：给定时期的一个经济体内生产的所有最终产品和服务的市场价值
Consumption is spending by households on goods and services, with the exception of purchased of new housing.消费：除了购买新住房，家庭用于物品与劳务的支出。
Investment is spending on capital equipment inventories, and structures, including household purchases of new housing.投资：用于资本设备、存货和建筑物的支出，包括家庭用于购买新住房的支出。
Government purchases are spending on goods and services by local, state, and federal government.政府支出：地方、州和联邦政府用于物品和与劳务的支出。
Net export is spending on domestically produced goods by foreigners(exports)minus spending on foreign goods by domestic residents(imports)净出口：外国人对国内生产的物品的支出（出口）减国内居民对外国物品的支出（进口）。
Nominal GDP is the production of goods and services valued at current prices.名义GDP：按现期价格评价的物品与劳务的生产。
Real GDP is the production of goods and services valued at constant prices.实际GDP：按不变价格评价的物品和服务的生产。
GDP deflator is a measure of the price level calculated as the ratio of nominal GDP to real GDP times 100.GDP平减指数：用名义GDP与实际GDP的比率计算的物价水平衡量指标。第十六章 MEASURING THE COST OF LIVING生活费用的衡量
CPI is measure of the overall cost of the goods and services bought by a typical consumer.消费物价指数CPI：一个典型消费者所购买的一篮子产品与服务的价格相对于某个基年同样一篮子产品与服务的价格。
Inflation rate is the percentage change in the price index from the preceding period.通货膨胀率：前一个时期以来物价指数变动的百分比。
Producer price index(PPI)is a measure of the cost of a basket of goods and services bought by firms.生产物价指数：企业购买的一篮子物品与劳务的费用的衡量指标。
Indexation：the automatic correction of a dollar amount for the effects of inflation by law or contract.根据法律或合约对通货膨胀的影响进行货币数量的自动调整。
Nominal interest rate is the interest rate as usually reported without a correction of the effects of inflation.名义利率：通常公布的，未根据通货膨胀的影响校正的利率。
Real interest rate is the interest rate corrected for the effects of inflation.真实利率：根据通货膨胀校正过的利率。
第十七章 PRODUCTION AND GROWTH生产与增长
Productivity is the amount of goods and services produced from each hour of a worker’s time.生产率：每单位劳动投入所生产的物品和劳务的数量。
Physical capital is the stock of equipment and structures that are used to produce goods and services.物资资本：用于生产物品与劳务的设备和建筑物存量。
Human capital is the knowledge and skills that workers acquire through education, training, and experience.人力资本：工人通过教育、培训和经验而获得的知识与技能。
Natural resources are the inputs into the production of goods and services that are provided by nature.自然资源：由自然界提供的用于生产物品与劳务的投入，如土地、河流与矿藏。Technological knowledge is society’s understanding of the bes ways to produce goods and services.技术知识：社会对生产物品与劳务的最好方法的了解。
Diminishing returns are the property whereby the benefit from an extra unit of an input declines as the quantity of the input increases.收益递减：随着投入量的增加，每一单位额外投入得到的收益减少的特性。
Catch-up effect is the property whereby continues that start off poor tend to grow more rapidly than countries that start off rich.追赶效应：开始时贫穷的国家倾向于比开始时富裕的国家增长更快。
第十八章 SAVING,INVESTMENT,AND THE FINANCIAL SYSTEM储蓄、投资和金融体系
Financial system is the group of institutions in the economy that help to match one person’s saving with another person’s investment.金融体系：经济中促使一个人的储蓄与另一个人的投资相匹配的一组机构。
Financial markets are financial institutions through which savers can directly provide funds to borrowers.金融市场：储蓄者可以通过它直接向借款者提供资金的金融机构。
Bond is a certificate of indebtedness 债券：一种债务证明书。
Stock is a claim to partial ownership in a firm 股票：企业部分所有权的索取权。
Financial intermediaries are financial institutions through which savers can indirectly provide funds to borrowers.金融中介机构：储蓄者可以通过它间接地向借款者提供资金的金融机构。
Mutual fund is an institution that sells shares to the public and uses the proceeds to buy a portion of stocks and bonds.共同基金：向公众出售股份，并用收入来购买股票于债券资产组合的机构。
National saving(saving)is the total income in the economy that remains after paying for consumption and government purchase.国民储蓄（储蓄）：在用于消费和政府购买后剩下的一个经济中的收入。Private saving is the income that households have left after paying for taxes and consumption.私人储蓄：家庭在支付了税收和消费之后剩下来的收入。
Public saving is the tax revenue that the government has left after paying for its spending.公共储蓄：政府在支付其支出后剩下的税收收入。
Budget surplus is an excess of tax revenue over government spending.预算盈余：税收收入大于政府支出的余额。
Budget deficit is a shortfall of tax revenue from government spending 预算赤字：政府支出引起的税收收入短缺。
Market for loanable funds are the market in which those who want to save supply funds those who want to borrow to invest demand funds.可贷资金市场：想储蓄的人借以提供资金、想借钱投资的人借以借贷资金的市场。
Crowding out is a decrease in investment that results from government borrowing.挤出：政府借款所引起的投资减少。
第十九章 THE BASIC TOOLS OF FINANCE基本金融工具
Finance: the field that studies how people make decisions regarding the allocation of resources over time and the handling of risk.金融学：研究人们如何在某一时期内做出关于配置资源和应对风险的学科。
Present value: the amount of money today that would be needed to produce,using prevailing interest rates, a given future amount of money.现值：用现行利率生产一定量未来货币所需要的现在货币量。
Future value: the amount of money in the future that an amount of money today will yield, given prevailing interest rates.未来值：在现行利率既定时，现在的货币量将带来的未来货币量。
Compounding: the accumulation of a sum of money in,say,a bank account,where the interest earned remains in the account to earn additional interest in the future.复利：货币量的累积，比如说银行账户上货币量的累积，即赚得的利息仍留在账户上以赚取未来更多的利息。
Risk averse: exhibiting a dislike of uncertainty.风险厌恶：不喜欢不确定性。Diversification:the reduction of risk achieved by replacing a single risk with a large number of smaller unrelated risks.多元化：通过用大量不相关的小风险代替一种风险来降低风险。
Idiosyncratic risk: risk that affects only a single economic actor.企业特有风险：只影响一个公司的风险。
Aggregate risk: risk that affects all economic actors at once.市场风险：影响股市上所有公司的风险。
Fundamental analysis: the study of a company’s accounting statements and future prospects to determine its value.基本面分析：为决定一家公司的价值而对其会计报表和未来前景进行的研究。
Efficient markets hypothesis: the theory that asset prices reflect all publicly available information about the value of an asset.有效市场假说：认为资产价格反映了关于一种资产价值的所有公开的、可获得的信息的理论。
Informationally efficient: reflecting all available information in a rational way.信息有效：以理性方式反映所有可获得的信息的有关资产价格的描述。
Random walk: the path of a variable whose changes are impossible to predict.随机行走：一种变量变动的路径是不可预期的。
第二十章 UNEMPLOYMENT AND ITS NATURAL RATE 失业和自然失业率
Labor force is the total number of workers, including both the employed and the unemployed.劳动力：既包括就业者又包括失业者的工人总数。
Unemployment rate is the percentage of the labor force that is unemployed.失业率：劳动力中失业者所占的百分比。
Labor-force participation rate is the percentage of the adult population that is in the labor force.劳动力参工率：劳动力占成年人口的百分比。
Natural rate of unemployment is the normal rate of unemployment around which the unemployment rate fluctuates.自然失业率：失业率围绕它而波动的正常失业率。
Cyclical unemployment is the deviation of unemployment from its natural rate.周期性失业：失业率对自然失业率的背离。Discouraged workers are individuals who would like to work but have given up looking for a job 丧失信心的工人：想工作但已放弃寻找工作的人。
Frictional unemployment is the unemployment that results because it takes time for workers to search for the jobs that best suit their tastes and skills.摩擦性失业：由于工人寻找最适合自己嗜好和技能的工作需要时间而引起的失业。
Structural unemployment is the unemployment that results because the number of jobs available in some labor markets is insufficient to provide a job for everyone who wants one.结构性失业：由于某些劳动市场上可提供的工作岗位数量不足以为每个想工作的人提供工作而引起的失业。
Job search is the process by which workers find the appropriate jobs given their tastes and skills 寻找工作：在工人的嗜好与技能既定时工人寻找适当工作的过程。
Unemployment insurance is a government program that partially protects workers’ incomes when they became unemployed.失业保险：当工人失业时为他们提供部分收入保障的政府计划。
Union is a worker association that bargains with employers over wages and working conditions 工会：与雇主就工资、津贴和工作条件进行谈判的工人协会。
Collective bargaining is the process by which unions and firms agree on the terms of employment.集体谈判：工会和企业就就业条件达成一致的过程.Strike is the organized withdrawal of labor from a firm by a union 罢工：工会组织工人从企业撤出劳动。
Efficiency wages are above-equilibrium wages paid by firms in order to increase worker productivity 效率工资：企业为提高工人生产率而支付的高于均衡水平的工资。
第二十一章
THE MONETARY SYSTEM 货币制度
Money is the set of assets in an economy that people regularly use to buy goods and services from other people.货币：经济中人们经常用于向其他人购买物品与劳务的一组资产。
Medium of exchange is an item that buyers give to sellers when they want to purchase goods and services.交换媒介：买者在购买物品与劳务时给予卖者的东西。
Unit of account is the yardstick people use to post prices and record debts.计价单位：人们用来表示价格和记录债务的标准。
Store of value is an item that people can use to transfer purchasing power from the present to the future.价值储藏手段：人们可以用来把现在的购买力转变为未来的购买力的东西。
Liquidity is the ease with which an asset can be converted into the economy’s medium of exchange.流动性：一种资产兑换为经济中交换媒介的容易程度。
Commodity money is money that takes the form of a commodity with intrinsic value.商品货币：以有内在价值的商品为形式的货币。
Fiat money is money without intrinsic value fiat is used as money because of government decree.法定货币：没有内在价值、由政府法令确定作为通货使用的货币。
Currency is the paper bills and coins in the hands of public.通货：公众手中持有的纸币钞票和铸币。
Demand deposits are balances in bank accounts that depositions can access on demand by writing a check.活期存款：储户可以通过开支票而随时支取的银行账户余额。
Federal reserve(Fed）：the central bank of the United States.联邦储备：美国的中央银行。
Central bank: an institution designed to oversee the banking system and regulate the quantity of money in the economic.中央银行：为了监管银行体系和调节经济中的货币量而设计的机构。
Money supply is the quantity of money available in the economy.货币供给：经济中可以得到的货币量。
Monetary policy is the setting of the money supply by policymakers in the central bank 货币政策：中央银行的决策者对货币供给的安排。
Reserves are deposits that banks have received but have not loaned out.准备金：银行得到但没有贷出去的存款。
Fractional-reserve banking is a banking in which banks hold only a fraction of deposits as reserves 部分准备金银行：只把部分存款作为准备金的银行制度。
Reserve ratio is the fraction of deposits that banks hold as reserves.准备率：银行作为准备金持有的存款比例。
Money multiplier is the amount of money the banking system generates with each dollar of reserve 货币乘数：银行体系用1美元准备金所产生的货币量。
Open-market operation is the purchase and sale of U.S.government bonds by the Fed.公开市场活动：美联储买卖美国政府债券。
Reserve requirements are regulations on the minimum amount of reserves that banks must hold against deposits 法定准备金：关于银行必须根据其存款持有的最低准备金量的规定。
Discount rate is the interest rate on the loans that the Fed to banks.贴现率：美联储向银行发放贷款的利率。
第二十二章 MONEY GROWTH AND INFLATION 货币增长与通货膨胀
Quantity theory of money:a theory asserting that the quantity of money available determines the price level and that the growth rate in the quantity of money available determines the inflation rate 货币数量论：一种认为可得到的货币量觉决定物价水平，可得到的货币量的增长率决定通货膨胀率的理论。
Nominal variables are variables measured in monetary units.名义变量：按货币单位衡量的变量。
Real variables are variables measured in physical units.真实变量：按实物单位衡量的变量。
Classical dichotomy is the theoretical separation of nominal and variables.古典二分法：名义变量和真实变量的理论区分。
Monetary neutrality is the proposition that changes in the money supply do not affect real variables.货币中性：认为货币供给变动并不影响真实变量的观点。
Velocity of money is the rate at which money changes hands.货币流通速度：货币易手的速度。Quantity equation is the equation M*V=P*Y which relates the quantity of money, the velocity of money, and the dollar value of the economy’s output of goods and services.数量方程式：方程式M*V=P*Y,这个公式把货币量、货币流通速度和经济中物品与劳务产出的美元价值联系在一起。
Inflation tax is the revenue the government raises by creating money.通货膨胀税：政府通过创造货币而筹集的收入。
Fisher effect is the one-for-one adjustment of the nominal interest rate to the inflation rate.费雪效应：名义利率对通货膨胀率所进行的一对一的调整。
Shoeleather costs are the resources wasted when inflation encourages people to reduce their money holdings.皮鞋成本：当通货膨胀鼓励人们减少货币持有量时所浪费的资源。
Menu costs are the costs of changing prices.菜单成本：改变价格的成本。
第二十三章AGGREGATE DEMAND AND AGGREGATE SUPPLY总需求与总供给
Recession is period of declining real incomes and rising unemployment.衰退：真实收入下降和失业增加的时期。
Depression is a severe recession.萧条：严重的衰退。
Model of aggregate demand and aggregate supply is the model that most economists use to explain short-run fluctuations in economic activity around its long-run trend.总需求与总供给模型：大多数经济学家用来解释经济活动围绕其长期趋势的短期波动的模型
Aggregate-demand curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that households, firms, and the government want to buy at each price level.总需求曲线：表示在每一种物价水平时，家庭、企业、政府和外国客户想要购买的物品与劳务量的曲线。
Aggregate-supply curve is a curve that shows the quantity of goods and services that firms choose to produce and sell at each price level.总供给曲线：表示在每一种物价水平时，企业选择生产并销售的物品与劳务量的一条曲线。
Stagflation is period of falling output and rising prices.滞涨：产量减少而物价上升的时期。第二十四章 THE INFLUERNCE OF MONETARY AND FISCAL POLICY ON AGGREGATE DEMAND 货币政策和财政政策对总需求的影响
Theory of liquidity preference is Keynes’s theory that the interest rate adjusts to bring money supply and money demand into balance.流动性偏好理论：凯恩斯的理论，认为利率的调整使货币供给与货币需求平衡。
Multiplier effect is the additional shifts in aggregate demand that result when expansionary fiscal policy increases income and thereby increases consumers spending.乘数效应：当扩张性财政政策增加了收入，从而增加了消费支出时引起的总需求的额外变动。
Crowding-out effect is the offset in aggregate demand that results when expansionary fiscal policy raises the interest rate and thereby reduces investment spending.挤出效应：当扩张性财政政策引起利率上升，从而减少了投资支出时所引起的总需求减少。
公理axiom
定理theorem
计算calculation
运算operation
证明prove
假设hypothesis,hypotheses(pl.)
命题proposition
算术arithmetic
加plus(prep.),add(v.),addition(n.)
被加数augend,summand
加数addend
和sum
减minus(prep.),subtract(v.),subtraction(n.)
被减数minuend
减数subtrahend
差remainder
乘times(prep.),multiply(v.),multiplication(n.)
被乘数multiplicand,faciend
乘数multiplicator
积product
除dividedby(prep.),divide(v.),division(n.)
被除数dividend
除数divisor
商quotient
等于equals,isequalto,isequivalentto
大于isgreaterthan
小于islesserthan
大于等于isequalorgreaterthan
小于等于isequalorlesserthan
运算符operator
平均数mean
算术平均数arithmaticmean
几何平均数geometricmeann个数之积的n次方根
倒数（reciprocal）x的倒数为1/x
有理数rationalnumber
无理数irrationalnumber
实数realnumber
虚数imaginarynumber
数字digit
数number
自然数naturalnumber
整数integer
小数decimal
小数点decimalpoint
分数fraction
分子numerator
分母denominator
比ratio
正positive
负negative
零null,zero,nought,nil
十进制decimalsystem
二进制binarysystem
十六进制hexadecimalsystem
权weight,significance
进位carry
截尾truncation
四舍五入round
下舍入rounddown
上舍入roundup
有效数字significantdigit
无效数字insignificantdigit
代数algebra
公式formula,formulae(pl.)
单项式monomial
多项式polynomial,multinomial
系数coefficient
未知数unknown,x-factor,y-factor,z-factor
等式，方程式equation
一次方程simpleequation
二次方程quadraticequation
三次方程cubicequation
四次方程quarticequation
不等式inequation
阶乘factorial
对数logarithm
指数，幂exponent
乘方power
二次方，平方square
三次方，立方cube
四次方thepoweroffour,thefourthpower
n次方thepowerofn,thenthpower
开方evolution,extraction
二次方根，平方根squareroot
三次方根，立方根cuberoot
四次方根therootoffour,thefourthroot
n次方根therootofn,thenthroot
sqrt(2)=1.414
sqrt(3)=1.732
sqrt(5)=2.236
常量constant
变量variable
坐标系coordinates
坐标轴x-axis,y-axis,z-axis
横坐标x-coordinate
纵坐标y-coordinate
原点origin
象限quadrant
截距(有正负之分)intercede
（方程的）解solution
几何geometry
点point
线line
面plane
体solid
线段segment
射线radial
平行parallel
相交intersect
角angle
角度degree
弧度radian
锐角acuteangle
直角rightangle
钝角obtuseangle
平角straightangle
周角perigon
底base
边side
高height
三角形triangle
锐角三角形acutetriangle
直角三角形righttriangle
直角边leg
斜边hypotenuse
勾股定理pythagoreantheorem
钝角三角形obtusetriangle
不等边三角形scalenetriangle
等腰三角形isoscelestriangle
等边三角形equilateraltriangle
四边形quadrilateral
平行四边形parallelogram
矩形rectangle
长length
宽width
周长perimeter
面积area
相似similar
全等congruent
三角trigonometry
正弦sine
余弦cosine
正切tangent
余切cotangent
正割secant
余割cosecant
反正弦arcsine
反余弦arccosine
反正切arctangent
反余切arccotangent
反正割arcsecant
反余割arccosecant
补充：
集合aggregate
元素element
空集void
子集subset
交集intersection
并集union
补集complement
映射mapping
函数function
定义域domain,fieldofdefinition
值域range
单调性monotonicity
奇偶性parity
周期性periodicity
图象image
数列，级数series
微积分calculus
微分differential
导数derivative
极限limit
无穷大infinite(a.)infinity(n.)
无穷小infinitesimal
积分integral
定积分definiteintegral
不定积分indefiniteintegral
复数complexnumber
矩阵matrix
行列式determinant
圆circle
圆心centre(bre),center(ame)
半径radius
直径diameter
圆周率pi
弧arc
半圆semicircle
扇形sector
环ring
椭圆ellipse
圆周circumference
轨迹locus,loca(pl.)
平行六面体parallelepiped
立方体cube
七面体heptahedron
八面体octahedron
九面体enneahedron
十面体decahedron
十一面体hendecahedron
十二面体dodecahedron
二十面体icosahedron
多面体polyhedron
旋转rotation
轴axis
球sphere
半球hemisphere
底面undersurface
表面积surfacearea
体积volume
空间space
双曲线hyperbola
抛物线parabola
四面体tetrahedron
五面体pentahedron
六面体hexahedron菱形rhomb,rhombus,rhombi(pl.),diamond
正方形square
梯形trapezoid
直角梯形righttrapezoid
等腰梯形isoscelestrapezoid
五边形pentagon
六边形hexagon
七边形heptagon
八边形octagon
九边形enneagon
十边形decagon
十一边形hendecagon
十二边形dodecagon
多边形polygon
正多边形equilateralpolygon
相位phase
周期period
振幅amplitude
内心incentre(bre),incenter(ame)
外心excentre(bre),excenter(ame)
旁心escentre(bre),escenter(ame)
垂心orthocentre(bre),orthocenter(ame)
重心barycentre(bre),barycenter(ame)
内切圆inscribedcircle
外切圆circumcircle
统计statistics
平均数average
加权平均数weightedaverage
方差variance
标准差root-mean-squaredeviation,standarddeviation
比例propotion
百分比percent
百分点percentage
百分位数percentile
排列permutation
组合combination
概率，或然率probability
分布distribution
正态分布normaldistribution
非正态分布abnormaldistribution
图表graph
条形统计图bargraph
柱形统计图histogram
折线统计图brokenlinegraph
曲线统计图curvediagram
Accuracy 准确度 Active 主动 Action 评价.处理 Activity 活动 Add 加
Addition rule 加法运算规则 Analysis Covariance 协方差分析 Analysis of Variance 方差分析 Appraisal Variation 评价变差 Approved 承认 ASQC 美国质量学会 Attribute 计数值 Audit 审核
Automatic database recovery 数据库错误自动回复Average平均数 balance平衡
Balance sheet 资产负债对照表 Binomial 二项分配 Body 机构
Brainstorming Techniques 脑力风暴法Business Systems Planning 企业系统规划 Cable 电缆 Capability 能力
Cause and Effect matrix 因果图.鱼骨图 Center line 中心线 check 检查
Check Sheets 检查表
Chi-square Distribution 卡方分布 Clutch spring 离合器弹簧 Coining 压印加工 Common cause 共同原因 Complaint 投诉
Compound factor 调合因素 Concept 新概念 Condenser 聚光镜 Conformity 合格 Connection 关联
Consumer’s risk 消费者之风险 Control 控制
Control characteristic 管制特性 Control chart 管制图 Control plan 管制计划 Correction 纠正
Correlation Methods 相关分析法 Cost down 降低成本
CPI: continuouse Process Improvement 连续工序改善 Creep 渐变
Cross Tabulation Tables 交叉表 CS: customer Sevice 客户中心 Cushion 缓冲 Customer 顾客
DSA: Defects Analysis System 缺陷分析系统 Data 数据
Data Collection 数据收集
Data concentrator 资料集中缓存器 DCC: Document Control Center 文控中心 Decision 决策.判定
Defects per unit 单位缺点数 Description 描述 Detection 难检度 Device 装置 Digital 数字 Do 执行
DOE: Design of Experiments 实验设计 Element 元素 Else 否则
Engineering recbnology 工程技术 Entropy 函数 Environmental 环境 Equipment 设备
Estimated accumulative frequency 计算估计累计数 EV: Equipment Variation 设备变异 Event 事件
External Failure 外部失效,外部缺陷 FA: Failure Analysis 坏品分析 Fact control 事实管理 Fatique 疲劳
FMEA: Failure Mode and Effect analysis 失效模式与效果分析 FPY 合格率
FQA: Final Quality Assurance 最终品质保证 FQC: Final Quality control 最终品质控制 Full-steer 完全转向 function 职能
Gauge system 量测系统 Grade 等级 Gum-roll 橡皮滚筒 Health meter 体重计 Heat press 冲压粘着 Histogram 直方图 Hi-tech 高科技
hypergeometric 超几何分配
hysteresis 磁滞现象 Improvement 改善 Inductance 电感 Information 信息 Initial review 先期审查 Inspection 检验
Internal Failure 内部失效,内部缺陷
IPQC: In Process Quality Control 制程品质控制 IQC: Incomming Quality Control 来料品质控制
ISO: International Organization for Standardization 国际标准组织
Law of large number 大数法则 Link 连接
LCL: Lower Control limit 管制下限 LQC: Line Quality Control 生产线品质控制 LSL: Lower Size Limit 规格下限 Machine 机械 Manage 管理 Materials 物料 Measurement 量测 Median 中位数 Miss feed 漏送
Module,sub-system,sub-unit 单位 Momentum 原动力
Monte garlo method 原子核分裂热运动法
MSA: Measurement System Analysis 量测系统分析 Multiplication rule 乘法运算规则 NIST 美国:标准技术院 Normal 常态分布 Occurrence 发生率 On.off system 开,关系统
Operation Instruction 作业指导书 Organization 组织 Parameter 参数 Parto 柏拉图 Parts 零件
Parts per million 不良率 Passive 消极的,被动的 Plan 计划 Pulse 脉冲 Policy 方针 Population 群体 Power 力量,能源
PQA: Process Quality Assurance 制程品质保证 Practice 实务 Precision 精密度
preemptive 先占式多任务 Pressure 压缩 Prevention 预防 Probability 机率
Probability density function 机率密度函数 Procedure 流程 Process 过程
Process capability analysis 制程能力分析图
Process control and process capability 制程管制与制程能力 Producer’s risk 生产者之风险 Product 产品 Production 生产 Program 方案 Projects 项目
QA: Quality Assurance 品质保证 QC: Quality Control 品质控制 QE: Quality Engineering 品质工程
QFD: Quality Function Desgin 品质机能展开 Quality 质量
Quality manual 品质手册 Quality policy 品质政策 Random experiment 随机试验 Random numbers 随机数 Range 全距 Record 记录 Reflow 回流 Reject 拒收 Repair 返修
Repeatusility 再现性 Reproducibility 再生性 Requirement 要求 Residual 误差 Response 响应 Responsibilities 职责 Review 评审 Reword 返工 Robustness 稳健性 Rolled yield 直通率
RPN: Risk Priority Number 风险系数 sample 抽样,样本 Sample space 样本空间
Sampling with replacement 放回抽样 Sampling without peplacement 不放回抽样 Scatter diagram 散布图分析 Scrap 报废 Screw 螺旋
Severity 严重度
Shot-peening 微粒冲击平面法
Simple random sampling 简单随机取样 Size 规格
SL: Size Line 规格中心线 Slip 滑动
Stratified random sampling 分层随机抽样 SOP: Standard Operation Procedure 标准作业书 SPC: Statistical Process Control 统计制程管制 Special cause 特殊原因 Specification 规范
SQA: Source(Supplier)Quality Assurance 供货商品质保证Stage sampling 分段随机抽样 Standard Deviation 标准差 Sum of squares 统计表 supplier平方和 System 供方
systematic sampling 系统,体系 Statistical tables 系统抽样 Taguchi-method 田口方法 Technical committees 技术委员会 Test piece 测试片 Theory 原理
Time stamp 时间戳印 Time-lag 延迟 Title 标题 Torque 转矩 Total 求和
TQC: Total Quality Control 全面品质控制 TQM: Total Quality Management 全面品质管理 Traceablity 追溯 Training 培训
Transaction processing and logging 交易处理 Trouble 困扰 Up and down 上和下
UCL: Upper Control Limit 管制上限 USL: Upper Size Limit 规格上限 Validation 确认 Variable 计量值 Variance 变异和 Vector 向量 Verification 验证 Version 版本
VOC: voice of Customer 客户需求 VOE: Voice of Engineer 工程需求
质量相关术语英中文对照
IQC: incomming quality control 进料检验LQC: line quality control 生产线品质控制IPQC: inprocess quality control 制程品质控制FQC: final quality control 最终品质控制OQC: outgoing quality control 出货品质控制PQA: process quality control 制程品质保证FQA: final quality assurance 最终品质保证
SQA: source(supplier)quality assurance 供应商品质保证DAS: defect analysis system 缺陷分析系统DCC: document control center 文控中心QCC: quality control circle 品管圈
QA: quality assurance OR quality audit 品质保证 品质稽核QC: quality control 品质控制QE: quality engineering 品质工程TRAINING: 培训ZD: zero defect 零缺陷
FMEA: failure mode and effects analysis 潜在缺陷模式和影响 分析
FMA: failure mode analysis 故障模式分析FEA: failure effect analysis 故障效应分析FCA: failure criticality analysis 故障危害度分析FA: failure analysis 坏品分析 CS: customer service 客户服务
CPI: continuous process improvement 连续工序改善DOE: design of experiment 实验设计SQC: statistical quality control 统计品质控制TQC: total quality control 全面品质控制
CWQC: company-wide quality control 全公司品质管理GWQC: group-wide quality control 全集团品质管理PDCA: plan do check action 计划 执行 检查 矫正AQL: acceptable quality level 允收水准(接收质量限)SOP: standard operation procedure 操作标准SIP: standard inspection procedure 检验标准IE: industrial research 工业工程MR: method research 方法研究OR: operation research 工作研究VE: value engineering 价值工程
In newly set-up aquaculture systems, nitrite can reach concentration toxic to fish and shrimp before a sufficient biomass of NOB established. To reduce the length of time for establishment of NOB, commercial preparations of these organisms are available to seed the aquarium environment[3,4,5].
The optimization of fermentation medium is of primary importance in the development of any fermentation processes. Conventionally, fermentation process was optimized by implementing one factor at a time[6]. Whereas at present, this approach has been replaced with statistical designs for screen of important factors and optimize of those important factors[7,8]. The use of statistical experimental design in the optimization of fermentation processes or media is well documented[9,10]. But there was no studies dealing with the optimization of nitrite oxidizing bacteria for improving the nitrite oxidizing rate.
In the present work, we reported a sequential optimization strategy for nitrite oxidizing rate by nitrite oxidizing bacteria. The objective of this paper is how to use statistical experimental designs to optimize the fermentation media for nitrite oxidizing rate in shake flask experiments, and to apply the nitrite oxidizing bacteria preparations to treat the nitrite of aquaculture.
1 Materials and Methods
1.1Organism and culture conditions
Nitrite oxidizing bacteria (NOB 013) was isolated from aquaria, and stored in the vapor phase above liquid nitrogen. Before experiment, NOB was incubated at 28～30℃ in 500 mL seed cultures containing NaCl (0.3 g·L-1), MgSO4·7H2O (0.14 g·L-1), FeSO4·7H2O (0.03 g·L-1), KH2PO4 (0.136 g·L-1), NaNO2 (0.5 g·L-1), NaHCO3 (1.6 g·L-1).The pH was adjusted to 7.6. The medium was placed into 1 000 mL Erlenmeyer at 170 rpm for 2 days.
1.2Analytical method
Because of the strong adhesion of NOB[11], it was very difficult to count the number of NOB. In this paper, the nitrite oxidizing rate of NOB served as response. The nitrite oxidizing rate was determined by incubating with NaNO2 as substrate at 30℃ and pH 7.5～7.8[12]. The unit is mg NOundefined-N·(g MLSS·d)-1 (mixed liquor suspended solids, MLSS).
1.3Experimental type and software
1.3.1 Plackett-Burman design
Plackett-Burman design is based on the first order model:
Y=β0+∑βiXi (1)
Where, Y is the response, β0 is the model intercept and βi is the linear coefficient, and Xi is the level of the independent variable. For screening purpose, various medium components and culture parameters were investigated. Based on the Plackett-Burman design, each factor was prepared in two levels:-1 for low level and +1 for high level. Eight assigned variables and three unassigned variables, commonly referred as the dummy, were screened in eighteen experimental designs(with three centre points). Tab.1 illustrated the levels of each factor used in the experimental design, whereas, Tab.2 represents the design matrix. The statistical software package Minitab (Version 15.1, Minitab Inc., Pennsylvania, USA) was used to analyze the experimental design. The purpose of three centre points was to assess the error and curvature.
1.3.2 Box-Behnken design
In order to optimize the important factors for enhanced nitrite oxidizing rate, a three variable Box-Behnken design with three replicates at the center point was applied. For statistical calculations, the relation between the coded values and actual values are described as the following equation:
Xi=(Ai-A0)/△A (2)
Where Xi is a coded value of the variable; Ai is the actual value of variable; A0 is the actual value of the A0 at the centre point; and △A is the step change of variable. The levels of the variables and the experimental design were shown in Tab.3. A second-order polynomial function was fitted to correlate relationship between variable and response. The quadratic equation was following:
Y=β0+∑βiXi+∑βiiXundefined+∑βijXiXj (3)
Where, Y is the predicted response; β0 is a constant; βi is the linear coefficients; βii is the squared coefficients; and βij is the cross-product coefficients. The statistical software package Minitab was used to analyze the experimental design.
1.4The field trial of NOB
A field trial was conducted at Sun Yatsen city. Three separate ponds (around 0.6 hectares each) were treated with NOB microbial product, where 50 L of concentrated NOB (1.99 g VSS·L-1) (volatile solid, VSS) with 850 mg NO2-N·(g MLSS·d)-1 were added to these ponds, when the nitrite was accumulated to 2.5, 2.0, 2.6 mg·L-1 in these ponds. Three additional identically sized and stocked ponds (nitrite: 2.1, 2.6, 3.1 mg·L-1) served as the non-treated controls, receiving the same amount of food as the treated ponds. All ponds were mechanically aerated. Water temperature and salinity in the ponds followed typical seasonal fluctuation, with an average temperature range of 27～33℃, and salinity of 23～25 mg·L-1. Ponds were fed daily, with up to four feedings per day.
2 Results and discussion
2.1The screening stage: Plackett-Burman design (P-B design) and analysis
An initial set of 8 media components was identified as potentially affecting the nitrite oxidizing rate of NOB. These factors, along with their low and high factor levels,were provided in Tab.1.
The screening design usually uses the factional factorial design(FFD), because the resolution of P-B design is III. Resolution=3 means that main effects are not confounded with other main effects, but they are confounded with one or more two-way interactions, which must be assumed to be zero for the main effects to be meaningful. However the resolution of FFD is IV, resolution= 4 means that main effects are not confounded with other main effects or two-factor interactions, and two-factor interactions can be confounded with other two-factor interaction.
But there were 8 media components in this work, running experiments would cost time and money, so P-B design was chosen to screening the important components from the all media components. The number of runs was 15(with 3 centre points) that reduced from 19 if FFD with 3 centre points was applied in this experiment. The results were provided in Tab.2. The purpose of three centre points was to assess the error and curvature. The low and high factor levels were coded as -1 and +1, respectively, for the analysis of the data, the mid-level (for the centre points) were coded as 0.
Note:S=25.18;R2=98.23%
The parameter estimates of the media components were given in Tab.1. The media components having the significance(P-value<0.05) at this stage including Na2CO3, NaNO2, Glucose, and NaCl was an important factor(P-value=0.053).But Glucose had negative and the low level was 0 g·L-1, so it was removed from the media. The effect of other factors was positive and had insignificant effect, fixed at low level and entered the following experiments because of reducing cost price. The most important thing is that the curvature term was significant(P=0.001<0.05), indicating the optimal conditions were likely inside the current experimental region.
2.2Optimization stage: Box-Behnken design and analysis
Because the P-value of curvature was 0.001<0.05, which indicated the present region was optimal region, Box-Behnken design was applied to optimize three medium components. The design and result of Box-Behnken design were provided in Tab.3.
The R2 was 98.17%, and the P-value of lack of fit was 0.124, that indicated the model appeared to be appropriate for the optimal region. The response surface and contours also indicated the same result(Fig.1～3).By applying the Box-Behnken design, the following second-order polynomial equation was found to explain the nitrite oxidizing rate:
Y=-3 194.6+7 206.7X1+1 221.0X2+7 716.7X3-6 316.7X1X1-308.7X2X2-13 516.7X3X3-540X1X2-3 700.0X1X3+1 260.0X2X3 (4)
Where, Y is the predicted nitrite oxidizing rate; X1, X2, and X3 are the values of Na2CO3, NaNO2 and NaCl, respectively.
The parameter estimates(Tab.4) and analysis of variance(Tab.5) suggest that the linear, square and interaction terms have a significant effect on nitrite oxidizing rate(P-value<0.05).
Note:S=7.00;R2=98.17%
From equations derived by differentiation of Eq.(4), the optimal value of X1, X2 and X3 in the uncoded units were 0.37, 2.36 and 0.34 respectively. Correspondingly, we can obtain the maximum point of the model, which was 905.0 mg NO2-N·(g MLSS·d)-1[2.30 g NO2-N·(g MLSS·d)-1], and this nitrite oxidizing rate exceeded the results of Grommen et al. [0.3～0.5 g NO2-N·(g MLSS·d)-1][13].
Using the software, the response surface curves and its corresponding contour curves described by the regression model were constructed in Fig.1～3. Here, each response surface plot represented the effect of two independent variables at an optimal level of the third variable. The shape of the corresponding contour plots indicated whether the mutual interactions between the independent variables were significant or not. As shown in Fig.1～3, the response surface of nitrite oxidizing rate showed a clear peak, indicating that the optimum condition fell inside the design boundary well.
2.3The field trial of NOB
The results showed clearly that the NOB was effective at oxidizing nitrite to nitrate(Fig.4). The nitrite concentrate was reduced to 0.1 mg·L-1 after 3 days. However, the nitrite concentrate of no-treated controls accumulated to 2.7, 3.2 and 3.8 mg·L-1 after 3 days.
3 Conclusions
(1)Estimated optimum medium composition of the nitrite oxidizing rate was as follows: NaHCO3, 2.0 g·L-1; NaNO2, 2.36 g·L-1; Na2CO3, 0.37 g·L-1; NaCl, 0.34 g·L-1; KH2PO4, 0.05 g·L-1; MgSO4 ·7H2O, 0.05 g·L-1; and FeSO4·7H2O, 0.03 g·L-1. The nitrite oxidizing rate reached a maximum at 905.0 mg NO2-N·(g MLSS·d)-1.
(2)The proper use of sequential statistical experimental design can allow the experimentalist to reduce the complexity of a problem by identifying the important effect factors and focusing future experiments on those factors.
(3)The results of the field trial showed that appropriate amount of NOB microbial product can reduce the nitrite to safe level(<0.2 mg·L-1) quickly after 3 days.
摘要：为提高硝化菌的亚硝酸盐氧化能力,利用统计试验设计(Plackett-Burman和Box-Behnken设计)优化得到一最佳培养基:NaHCO32.0g·L-1;NaNO22.36g·L-1;Na2CO30.37g·L-1;NaCl0.34g·L-1;KH2PO40.05g·L-1;MgSO4·7H2O0.05g·L-1;FeSO.47H2O0.03g·L-1。在此条件下,硝化菌的最大亚硝酸盐氧化速率达到905.0mgNO2-N·(gMLSS.d)-1(mixed liquor suspended solids,MLSS,混合液悬浮固体)。将50L降解速率为850mgNO2-N·(gMLSS,d)-1的硝化菌(浓度为1.99gVSS·L-1)(volatile solid,VSS,挥发性固体)投加至0.6hm2的养殖水体中,7d内试验水体中的亚硝酸盐浓度即降至安全浓度以下。
