英语从句中的省略
内蒙古五原县一中英语组 杨开昌
在一般情况下,宾语从句中的that只起引导作用,在句中不做任何成分,没有实际意义,通常可以将其省略。例如,
I think (that)he’ll be all right in a few days.
Current trends indicate (that)transportation is becoming cleaner,faster and safer.
但是,that在引导宾语从句时并非在任何情况下都可以省略。在以下情况中,that不能省略。
(1)and 连接两个或两个以上的宾语从句时,第一个that可以省略也可以不省,但其它不能省略,以免产生误会:
Galileo’s observations show (that) Copernicus, another great astronomer, was right and that the earth moves around the sun, not the other way around.
(2) that引导的宾语从句放在except ,but 等介词后面的时候,that不能省略.
He is a good student except that he is a little careless.
(3) that 引导的宾语从句放在句首起强调作用的时候,that不能省略.
That he ever said such a thing I simply don’t believe.
(4) 主句谓语动词和that引导的宾语从句之间有插入的时候,that不能省略
Everyone could see , I believe , that Tom was really afraid .
(5) it 作形式宾语时,that 引导的宾语从句中的that不能省略.
We thought it strange that Xiao Wang did not come yesterday.
(6) 在对话中简短回答时,如果that引导的宾语从句独立出现,that不能省略.
---What did he say ?
---That he won the first prize in the game .
(7) 在可接双宾语动词后that引导的宾语从句作直接宾语的时候,that不能省略.
The foreign friend tells us that Chinese is one of the most difficult languages to learn .
(8) 在that引导的宾语从句之前或之后紧接着一个状语的时候,that不能省略.
He suddenly caught sight of the boy and realized at once that he had seen him before.
(9) 在直接引语中,that引导的宾语从句与主句隔开的时候,that不能省略,.
“I’m sorry to say,” he said ,“that you are not the suitable person for the work.”
than这一连词引导的是比较状语从句, 一般这种比较状语从句都是不完全的, 省略的情况有以下几种:
1、从句里的谓语动词 (包括宾语和状语) 与主句相同, 为了避免重复, 以代动词do代替
例如:
The attempt to explain the increase of atherosclerosis in the postwar years from the point of view of nervous theory leads to the conclusion that people of all countries suffered in the postwar years from greater nervous strain than they did in the year during World War II.
译文:试图从神经学说的观点出发来解释战后动脉粥样硬化发病率的增加, 就得出了这样结论:各个国家的人们在战后比第二次世界大战期间神经更为紧张。 (此句中的代动词did代替了suffered from great nervous strain.)
They generally differ more from each other than do the individuals of any one species in a state of nature.
译文:一般来说, 它们彼此间的差异大于自然状态下任何物种中个体间的差异。 (此句中的代动词do代替了主句中已有的differ from each other, 而且倒装于从句之首。)
有时甚至将整个谓语都予以省略, 例如:Mental workers are more often affected by atherosclerosis and IHD (ischemic heart disease) than manual workers.
译文:脑力劳动者较体力劳动者更常罹患动脉粥样硬化症及缺血性心脏病。
2、从句中省略了宾语
例如:
For such patients diets with lower fat content and less calories than they are used to have should be strictly adapted.
译文:对于此类患者, 他们饮食中的脂肪含量和热量要比以前的低, 应严格调配。 (此句中在have的后面省略了宾语diets。)
3、从句中省略了复合谓语或表语
例如:
Congenital dilatation of the common bile duct is of greater surgical interest than congenital atresia, because it is so much more amenable to surgical treatment.
译文:先天性总胆管扩张较先天性总胆管闭塞更具有外科学上的意义, 因为在手术上它比后者要好治得多。 (此句里面than引导的从句中的主语congenital atresia后省略了is of great surgical interest这一复合谓语。)
At bronchography the peripheral bronchi were far more difficult to visualize than they were last time because they had been filled with pus and narrowed by mucosal edema.
译文:支气管造影时, 外周支气管由于充满浓液及因黏膜水肿而变窄, 远较上次 (造影时) 难于显现。 (此句中, 在从句中的were之后省略了表语difficult to visualize。)
4、从句中省略了主语和谓语
例如:
Radiologists tend to use plain chest radiography as diagnostic procedure in cardiovascular disease more often than angiocardiography.
译文:在诊断心血管疾患方面, 放射科医师倾向于把摄取胸部平片作为一种比心血管造影术更常采用的方法。 (从句中的主语和谓语都省略了, 只剩下宾语angiocardiography。)
有时可能仅省略主语, 例如:
In general, the more advanced coronary arteriosclerosis in white Americans and white South Africans is accompanied by considerably more biochemically demonstrable lipid than is seen in African subjects.
译文:一般来说, 在美国白人和南非白人中, 冠状动脉硬化症病情较重者, 可用生化方法证明其血脂浓度要比非洲黑人的高得多。 (在than后面省略了主语biochemically demonstrable lipid。)
5、than从句本身包含了主句及从句, 省略了的是主句, 剩下的往往是when或if引起的从句
例如:
It is well known that atherosclerosis with coronary insufficiency is more likely to occur when physical activity is restricted than when it is not restricted.
译文:众所周知, 动脉粥样硬化症伴冠状动脉供血不足, 在体力活动限制的情况下, 比体力活动不加限制的情况下更可能发生。 (than后面的比较状语从句atherosclerosis…is likely to occur完全省略了。When it is not restricted是修饰省略了的比较状语从句的。)
It is interesting that the degree of emphysema judged from films made in life is more marked than if it is assessed at autopsy.
译文:有意义的是患者生前所摄胸片判定肺气肿的程度比尸检更为显著。 (than后面的比较状语从句也完全省略了, if引起的条件状语从句是修饰省略了的比较状语从句的。)
根据上述几种类型的省略情况, 可以归纳出这样的规律:从句里的成分与主句相同的可以省略;所比较的形容词或副词, 只需在主句里说比较级, 不需在从句里说原级。
摘要:英语中省略的情况很常见, 翻译过程中如何补充省略的部分则显得尤为重要。本文主要就than引导的从句中的省略情况来讨论医学英语中从句的省略翻译。
关键词:医学英语,从句,省略与翻译
参考文献
定语从句的省略,前提条件是引导词必须在定语从句中作主语。省略方法有以下两种。
1.如果定语从句的谓语动词是系动词be的某种形式时,直接将引导词和系动词be省略
例如原句:The man who/that is in a car(定语从句) is my father.
车里的那个人是我父亲。
省略后为:The man in a car(定语从句已省略,此时介词短语作后置定语) is my father.
例如原句:This is a house which is surrounded with green trees.(定语从句)
这是一间绿树环绕的房子。
省略后为:This is a house surrounded with green trees. (定语从句已省略)
2.如果定语从句的谓语动词不是系动词be时,先将引导词省略,然后将基本谓语动词变成现在分词或过去分词,若表主动变成现在分词,表被动变成过去分词
例如原句:The house which faces to the south(定语从句) is Toms.
面朝南的房子是汤姆的。
省略后为:The house facing to the south(定语从句已省略) is Toms.(注:房子面朝南是主动,所以face变为现在分词了)
例如原句:At that time those who ruled England(定语从句) were French.
当时统治英国的那些人是法国人。
省略后为:At that time those ruling England(定语从句已省略) were French.(注:人统治英国为主动,所以ruled变为ruling)
例如原句:I went into the room which was crowded with children.(定语从句)
我走进了挤满小孩的房间。
省略后为:I went into the room crowded with children.(定语从句已省略) (注:房间里被挤满了小孩,所以基本谓语动词crowded仍变为crowded.此方法也等同于省略方法1)。
以上用法同样适用于作后置定语并且表被动的三种情况: done(已经被……)/being done(正在被……)/to be done(要被……)。
例如原句:(1)The trees which have been cut down by the villagers(定语从句) have been carried to Shanghai.
村民砍下来的树木已经被运往了上海。
省略后为:The trees cut down by the villagers(定语从句已省略) have been carried to Shanghai.
例如原句:The bridge which is being built now(定语从句) will be completed next month.
正在修建的桥下个月将要完工。
省略后为:The bridge being built now(定语从句已省略) will be completed next month.
例如原句:The sports meeting which is to be held next Friday(定语从句) has been put off.
下周星期五要举行的运动会已经被推迟了。
省略后为:The sports meeting to be held next Friday(定语从句已省略) has been put off.
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众所周知,英语句子按照其结构可分为三大类:简单句、并列句和主从复合句。而主从复合句中的定语从句又是考研英语翻译中的一个重点和难点。如果能掌握定语从句的翻译技巧,对广大考生将大有裨益。
英语中的定语有两种:前置定语和后置定语。而无论是限制性定语从句还是非限制性定语从句都是后置定语。限制性定语从句与非限制性定语从句的主要区别在于限制意义的`强弱之分。然而,在汉语中定语作为修饰语通常在其修饰词前面,并且没有限制意义的强弱之分。考研英语教研室辅导老师李波告诉我们,限制与非限制在翻译成汉语中并不起十分重要的作用。英语中定语从句的往往非常复杂,而我们翻译成汉语中的定语不宜太过复杂臃肿。所以,我们在翻译定语从句时一定要考虑汉语的表达习惯。李波老师说为了更好的处理考研英语翻译中的定语从句的翻译,下面浅谈几种翻译技巧:
第一、前置翻译法:把定语从句翻译到所修饰的先行词前面,可以用“的”来连接。但前置翻译法往往适用于较短的定语。
如:
Yao Ming is a basketball player who is ver great.
姚明是一名非常伟大的运动员。
He who has never tasted what is bitter does not know what is sweet.
没有吃过苦的人不知道什么是甜。
Space and oceans are the new world which scientists are trying to explore.
太空和海洋是科学家们努力探索的新领域。
His laughter,which was infectious,broke the silence.
他那富有感染力的笑声打破了沉寂。
第二、后置翻译法:把定语从句翻译在所修饰的先行词后面,翻译为并列分句。其中对于先行词的处理有两种:
1. 重复先行词。
如:
I told the story to John,who told it to his brother.
他把这件事告诉了约翰,约翰又告诉了他的弟弟。
We wish to express our satisfaction at this to the Special Committee,whose activities deserve to be encouraged.
在我们对特别委员会表示满意,特别委员会的工作应该受到鼓励。
Although he lacks experience,he has enterprise and creativity,which are decisive in achieving success in the area.
他虽然经验不足,但很有进取心和创造力,而这正是在这一领域获得成功的关键。
2. 省略先行词。
They worked out a new method by which production has now been rapidly increased.
他们制定出一种新方案,采用之后生产已迅速得到提高。
第三、融合翻译法:所谓融合,即把定语从句和它所修饰的先行词结合在一起翻译。把定语从句翻译成汉语后其定语的作用已经不明显或完全消失。
如:
There is a man downstairs who wants to see you.
楼下有人要见你。
In our factory,there are many people who are much interested in the new invention.
在我们工厂里,许多人对这项新发明很感兴趣。
We used a plane of which almost every part carried some indication of national identity.
我们驾驶的飞机几乎每一个部件都有一些国籍标志
She had a balance at her banker‘s which would have made her beloved anywhere.
她在银行里的存款足以使她到处受到欢迎
第四、定语译成状语翻译法
1. 译成时间状语
如:
A driver who is driving the bus mustn‘t talk with others or be absent-minded.
司机在开车时,不许和人谈话,也不能走神。
2. 译成原因状语
如:
He showed no further wish for conversation with Mrs. Smith,who was now more than usually insolent and disagreeable.
他似乎不愿再和史密斯太太讲话,因为她现在异常无礼,令人厌烦。
3. 译成条件状语
如:
Men become desperate for work, any work,which will help them to keep alive their families.
人们极其迫切地要求工作,不管什么工作,只要它能维持一家人的生活就行。
4. 译成让步状语
如:
He insisted on buying another house,which he had no use for。
尽管他并没有这样的需要,他坚持要再买一幢房子。
5.译成目的状语
如:
He wishes to write an article that will attract the public attention to the matter.
为了引起公众对这一事件的注意,他想写一篇文章。
He is collecting authentic material that proves his argument.
为了证明他的论点,他正在收集确凿的材料以。
6. 译成结果状语
如:
They tried to stamp out the revolt,which spread all the more furiously throughout the country.
他们企图镇压反抗,结果反抗愈来愈烈,遍及全国。
综上,浅谈了定语从句的四种翻译处理技巧:前置翻译法、后置翻译法、融合翻译法和状语翻译法。纵观历年的考研英语翻译实践中,后置翻译法和状语翻译法用得比较多。李波老师希望以上的浅析能够在考研复习中对同学们有所帮助。
1.简单句中的省略:
在对话中,交谈双方都知道谈论的对象,则可以省略句子的主语,省略主语和谓语的现象在交际用语中出现的很多。
(1)Looks like rain.(2)Hope to hear from you soon.(3)Sounds like a good idea.(4)Beg your pardon.(5)Feeling better today ?(6)This way, please.(7)—What does he want to eat ? —Some rice and vegetables.(8)Anything I can do for you ?(9)Sorry to hear that.(10)Doesn’t matter.(11)Terrible weather!(12)Pity you couldn’t come.2.并列句中的省略:
在并列句中,相同的成分如主语,谓语,宾语等都可以省略:(1)They learn French and we English.(2)My father planned and built all these houses.(3)John won the first race and Jimmy the second.(4)Coral is not a plant but a variety of animal life.3.复合句中的省略: 定语从句:
(1)That’s the reason he is late for the conference.(2)I don’t like the way he talks.状语从句:
(1)If heated, water will boil.(2)Tom was attacked by cramp while swimming across the river.(3)We’ll go to help you if necessary.(4)Had I time, I would come.(5)I’ll go, should it be necessary.(6)The captain can find a boat quicker than we can.宾语从句:如果宾语从句中的谓语部分与主句的谓语部分或上文的谓语部分相同,可将从句部分的谓语省略。
(1)We will do what we can(do)to help you.(2)—Is Mr.King in his office? —Sorry, I don’t know(whether he is in his office or not).4.动词不定式的省略:在动词不定式结构中,为了避免重复,常常省略不定式结构中的动词原形,只保留to。
(1)—Would you like to go with us ? —I’m glad to, but I have to finish my homework.(2)Don’t tell me the name of the sailor if you don’t want to.(3)—Have you ever been to the seaside?
—No, we can’t afford to.在used to, ought to, have to, would like/love to, wish to, be going to等结构中,常常省略to后面的动词原形。
(1)They do not visit their parents as much as they ought to.(2)He doesn’t get up early as he used to.(3)I’ll hand it in if I have to.(4)—Would you like to come tonight ?
—I’d love to.Tell , warn , order , advise , ask等动词的宾语后面接动词不定式做宾语补足语时,可以省略to后面的动词原形。
(1)He wanted to swim across the river but I warned him not to.(2)The boy wanted to play football in the street, but his mother told him not to.省略在语言中特别是日常交际中一种普遍现象,了解常见的省略现象有助于我们准确理解句子的语境,在应试复习中要注意不定式结构的省略方式以及一些几乎形成了惯用法的省略句。同时应当在书面表达中学会恰当地使用省略,使写出的东西更加精练,干脆利索。
1.When first _____ to the market, these products enjoyed great success.A.introducing
B.introduced C.introduce
D.being introduced 分析:when引导的时间状语从句,如果从句的主语和主句的主语相同,且从句中谓语部分有be时,可以省略句中的主语和be,本句中when后面省略了these products were.答案:B 2.It shames me to say it, but I told a lie when _____ at the meeting by my boss.A.questioning
B.having questioned
C.questioned
D.to be questioned 分析:本句when后面省略了I was
答案:C 3.What surprised me was not what he said but _____ he said it.A.the way B.in the way that
C.in the way D.the way which 分析:way表示:“方式”后面的定语从句由that / in which 引导或者省略关系代词,本句的定语从句he said it省略了关系代词。
答案:A 4.—Susan, will you please go and empty that drawer? —______? A.What for B.What is it
C.How is it D.How come 分析:第二个人不知道为什么要倒空抽屉,所以问为什么。What for(为什么)它的完整表达应是What are you going to use the empty drawer for ?
答案:A 5.I’m looking forward as much to her return as she herself to _____ me.A.have seen B.seeing
C.meet D.be met 分析:本句后半部分as she herself to _____ me是as she herself is looking forward to seeing me的省略。
答案:B 6.Who can you turn to in time of danger, if not ______? A.ourselves B.ours
C.we D.us 分析: if not ______ 是if you don’t turn to us 的省略。
答案:D 7.—Did you visit the museum last week ? —No, we _____, but we spent too much time shopping.A.could have
B.could
C.must have D.must 分析:句中we _____是we could have visited the museum last week.的省略形式。答案:A 8.—Is your mother going to the supermarket ? —No, ______.A.she doesn’t
B.she’s cooking C.she gets by bus
D.to a tailor’s shop 分析:根据对话的语境,表明:我妈妈不打算去超市,而是去裁缝铺。to a tailor’s shop 是She is going to a tailor’s shop.的省略。
答案:D 9.—She may not be free today.—_____, we’ll have to put the meeting off.A.If may B.If not
C.If she may not
D.If she may not be free today 分析:答语的前半部分的完整回答应是:If she is not free today.答案:B 10.She hurriedly left the room as if _____.A.she angry B.was angry
C.it was angry D.angry 分析:when, if.Unless, while, though / although, as if/though引导的状语从句,如果从句的主语和主句的主语相同,且从句中谓语部分有be时,可以省略句中的主语和be。
答案:D 11.—_____ did you come to know the actor ? —He’s a close friend of my sister’s.A.How B.Why
C.Where D.When 分析:根据答语He’s a close friend of my sister’s :他是我姐姐的一个好朋友。可以知道:对方在问:你是怎么认识那位男演员的。
答案:A 12.—Can you give me a hand with this table? I want to move it.—Sure._____ are you going to put it? A.Why
B.How
C.Where D.When 分析:上文说:我想挪一下这张桌子。所以第二个人问:你想把它放在哪里?
答案:C 13.— _____did you sleep last night ? —I sat up reading too late to fall asleep.A.How long B.How soon
C.How D.When 分析:根据回答:I sat up reading too late to fall asleep.:我看书看太晚了以致于睡不着了。可以知道对方在问:你昨晚睡得怎么样?
答案:C
练习
1._____, I will help you with your work.A.If I am possible
B.If it possible
C.If possible D.Possible 2.—Do you follow me? —Yes, _____.A.it is good
B.I will
C.perfectly D.very good 3.—How are you getting on with your work ? —Oh, I’m sorry.Things aren’t going so well as _____.A.plans
B.planning
C.planned D.to plan 4.—Are you a teacher? —No, but I _____.I worked in a middle school for three years.A.am B.will
C.do
D.was 5.—How many poor counties will there be in our province by 2010? —There will be only a few, if _____.A.much
B.some
C.any D.many 6.—Why didn’t you come to Mike’s birthday party yesterday ? —Well, I_____, but I forgot it.A.should
B.must
C.should have D.must have 7.Doctors have said that as many as 50% of patients don’t take medicine _____.A.like directed
B.to be directed C.as directed
D.so that directed
答案
1.C If possible:如果有可能的话。已经成为了惯用语是If it is possible的省略。2.C perfectly 是I follow you perfectly的省略。
3.C 事情不象计划的那样好。完整句是:…as it was planned.4.D but I _____是But I was a teacher 的省略。
5.C if _____的完整表达是:If there were any poor provinces….6.C I_____的完整表达是:I should have gone to Mike’s birthday party yesterday.7.C
10月12日 05时18分,《英语学习:职称英语考试:职称英语语法之倒装与省略》由出国英语编辑整理.
1.倒装:
英语的一般语序为:主语 + 谓语动词 + 宾语(或表语) + (状语等附加成分)。有时为了语法上或修辞上的需要而改变这种语序,如将谓语动词放到主语的前面,就称为倒装。因语法需要的倒装称为“语法倒装”,例如英语中的疑问句多采用倒装形式,如Are you a doctor or an engineer? 因修辞需要,如为了强调、句子结构均衡或承上启下等目的倒装,称为“修辞性倒装”,例如On the top of the hill stands a pretty little house. (山顶上有一座漂亮的小屋。)。
就应试而言,以下倒装现象应给予特别注意(按考试中出现的频率高低顺序排列):
1) not, not until, never, no, no sooner, seldom, hardly, scarcely, little, few 等 否定词开头的句子,比较:
例1
正常语序:I shall never forget the first days at college.
倒装语序:Never shall I forget the first days at college.
(我永远不会忘记初上大学的那些日子)
例2
正常语序:I did not have any idea what market economy is until recently.我们猜您可能喜欢以下文章: 西班牙留学 高考院校排名一览广东省高考部分高校补录情况火爆20湖北省高考考生只要志愿填报得当 基本上能年广西省高考本科一批部分高校未完成招生计划2012年江苏省高考本科一批录取新生44782人2012年内蒙古高考本科一批233所院校共录取20822人美国高考与中国高考的差别韩国留学 高考生留学的申请方案新加坡留学:高考分数在540分以上的学生就能报考去美国留学的学生有三类 英语学习:职称英语考试:职称英语语法之倒装与省略
倒装语序:Not until recently did I have any idea what market economy is.
(直到最近我才知道什么叫市场经济。)
以上两个句子采用倒装语序的主要目的是为了强调。
在这一节中,要特别注意以下三个倒装句型:
not until… ,见以上例2
no sooner …than…, 例如:
No sooner had she finished reading the poem than the students began to ask her questions.
(她刚念完这首诗,学生们就开始向她提问题了。)
hardly …when …,与 no sooner … than…句型的意思和用法相同,就是不要把搭配搞错了,既:
Hardly had she finished reading the poem when the students began to ask her questions.
2)介词 + no否定词开头的句子, 比较:
正常语序:I shall not do anything against the interests of the country under any circumstances.(不管在什么情况下,我决不做有损国家利益的事情。)
倒装语序:Under no circumstances shall I do anything against the interests of the country.
3) only, so/such (…that…),often 等词开头的句子,比较: 4)
正常语序:We can learn a foreign language well only in this way.
倒装语序:Only in this way can we learn a foreign language well.我们猜您可能喜欢以下文章: 西班牙留学 高考院校排名一览广东省2012年高考部分高校补录情况火爆2012年湖北省高考考生只要志愿填报得当 基本上能2012年广西省高考本科一批部分高校未完成招生计划2012年江苏省高考本科一批录取新生44782人2012年内蒙古高考本科一批233所院校共录取20822人美国高考与中国高考的差别韩国留学 高考生留学的申请方案新加坡留学:高考分数在540分以上的学生就能报考去美国留学的学生有三类 英语学习:职称英语考试:职称英语语法之倒装与省略
(只有这样我们才能学好一门外语。)
正常语序:The stain was so small that I could hardly see it.
倒装语序:So small was the stain that I could hardly see it.
(污迹很小,几乎看不出来。)
我们猜您可能喜欢以下文章: 西班牙留学 高考院校排名一览广东省2012年高考部分高校补录情况火爆2012年湖北省高考考生只要志愿填报得当 基本上能2012年广西省高考本科一批部分高校未完成招生计划2012年江苏省高考本科一批录取新生44782人2012年内蒙古高考本科一批233所院校共录取20822人美国高考与中国高考的差别韩国留学 高考生留学的申请方案新加坡留学:高考分数在540分以上的学生就能报考去美国留学的学生有三类
1.职称英语语法“倒装句”
2.2017职称英语语法倒装句考点
3.2017职称英语倒装句型详解
4.2017职称英语语法定语从句讲解
5.2017职称英语语法备考技巧
6.2017职称英语语法复习方法
7.职称英语考试技巧:倒装句
8.医师职称英语复习资料
9.职称英语复习资料
一、省略的定义及分类
迄今为止, 人们对语言省略的结构和功能进行了比较深入的研究。然而对于其定义与分类, 学者们有不同的见解。
1. 省略的定义
早在1660年, Antoine Arnauld和Claude Lancelot就在其合著的《General and Rational Grammar》中指出:在不影响理解的前提下, 人们可以把一些词语省略不说。
Quirk等认为, 更严格地来说, 省略可以描述为语法省略。转换生成语法派Chomsky的GB理论中的“空语类”实际上也讨论了部分省略现象。所谓空语类, 是指语言结构中没有语音形式, 但有语法作用和语义内容的结构成分, 比如动词“打”, 它要求前后各有一个名词短语, 当前后某个位置上的名词短语没有出现时就形成了空语类, 如“他打了人”的变体形式:a.人他打了, b.他打了, c.打了, 都形成了空语类。由此可见, 这里的空语类现象本质上也是一种省略。
功能语法代表人物Halliday对此的论述最有说服力, 他说, 省略是指话语中留下了一些特定的结构空位, 这些结构空位可以根据别处的情况填补还原。
2. 省略的分类
语言学家们对省略从不同的角度进行了分类, 结论也因人而异。根据Quirk等的观点, 省略可以分为三类:上下文省略, 结构省略和情景省略。上下文省略指被省略部分可以在上下文中找到;结构省略指被省略部分是语法结构词;情景省略指被省略部分要通过交际的现实情景才能得以补全。
冯运莲在其论文《英语省略的探讨》中对省略从三个角度进行了分类:复原型, 规范型和句法功能型。其中复原型包括:语境省略, 情景省略和结构省略。唐红云在其硕士论文《中英省略对比研究》中将省略分为:篇章省略, 情景省略和结构省略。王维贤先生也曾指出省略可分为:意念上的省略、结构省略和交际上的省略。其中交际上的省略, 即平常说的语境省略, 属于语用学的范围。
综上所述:情景省略不同于篇章省略即语境省略和结构省略, 被省信息不能完全从语篇中获得, 而只能从具体情境, 即情景语境中还原, 是由语言的情景来决定到底省略了什么。在下例中, 若我们不知确切的场景, 就无从知晓“firstclass”所指:是头等舱还是优先投递的邮件?
A:Good morning.
B:Good morning, two first class, please.
二、会话含意理论与情景省略
本文尝试从语用角度研究省略现象, 即结合会话含意理论综合分析情景省略。
1. 会话含意理论
美国语言哲学家Grice在六十年代后期指出, 在所有的语言交际活动中, 人们需要遵守一些诸如真实、充分、关联、清楚等原则和标准, 这就是所谓的“合作原则”, 它包括:
(1) 数量准则—信息适量。
(2) 质量准则—信息真实可靠。
(3) 关联准则—信息的相关性。
(4) 方式准则—说话简明扼要有条理, 避免晦涩和歧义。
在合作的前提下, 会话双方以各自的方式表达自己的意图, 进行有意义的会话。会话者表面违反合作原则, 隐藏其真实目的, 会话含意应运而生。由此可见, 会话含意源自合作原则的违反。
Grice在论述他的合作原则时, 对隐喻进行了研究, 他认为隐喻是会话含意的一种特殊情况, 是说话人违反了会话的质量准则所产生的结果。随后, 他又明确提出, 反语、隐喻、夸张和弱言法都是说话人有意违反会话的质量准则所产生的结果。情景省略的难点便在于其隐含意义, 所以情景省略也是违反合作原则, 主要是违反数量准则的产物, 会话含意油然而生。
2. 老友记与情景省略的分类
情景省略是指:被省信息不能完全从语篇中获得, 而只能从具体情境, 即情景语境中还原, 因此理解情景语境的定义至关重要。“语境”最早是在1923年由英国人类学家马林诺夫斯基提出的, 他将语境分成两类:“文化语境”和“情景语境”。前者指说话人所处的社会文化, 后者为话语的确切情景。胡壮麟认为, 在情景语境中, 某些上下文无法弄清的意思, 需要参考使用语言时所发生的事件、参与者和时空方式等因素, 才能贯通起来。他又说:“从社会语言学的角度看, 情景语境的另一层意义是一个人应该留意什么, 包括:谁、什么时间、什么地点、说的什么话。”四个因素中, “谁”最为复杂, 因为它指说话参与者间的相互关系, 共有知识和非言语行为等与说话者相关的所有信息。为强调理解省略的意义时参与者非言语行为的重要性, 我们将非言语行为从“谁”中分离出来。为便于理解和分析, 情景语境意指与情景相关的所有信息, 可归纳为:参与者、事件、话题和非言语行为。
情景省略多见于口语, “老友记”这部美国电视剧讲述的是六位朋友间的生活、友谊、爱情和事业。它具有简单地道的英语台词, 又是对生活的真实写照, 不但幽默而且实用, 对英语学习者具有极大吸引力和益处, 因此从该剧本中搜集典型范例便也比较合乎情理。基于对情景语境的理解, 我们在搜集的例子中观察到了情景省略的四种类型:省参与者、省话题型、省事件型和省非言语行为型 (下文仅以前两者为例说明) 。
(1) 省参与者
省参与者指省略了参与者的相关信息, 省略项只有通过参与者的相关信息才可还原, 包括他们的相互关系和共有知识。
例如:PHOEHE:Well, I’m ready to get the hell out of here!Oh.Are you?Are you…?Ohh!That’s so great!Ohh, not for Bonnie.But for you, yay!Ohh.
六人同行至海滩小屋度假, Phoebe下楼准备外出, “are you?”两词表达了她的诧异, 因为大家都接受Ross和Rachel分手的事实, 若未捕捉到此重要信息, 省略项便无法填充。结合说话者的惊异表情和她当时所看到的一幕:Ross和Rachel在沙发椅上热吻, 不难导出省略项为“getting back together?”。
(2) 省话题型
省话题型即对话的主题在话语中没有体现出来, 但对话的理解必须借助于情景中的主题。比如:RACHEL:Huh, that’s funny.You look like you’re gonna be the…
初看这些句子, 并不能表现出“funny”的意义。Chandler与Monica都在场, Rachel正在整理一束鲜花, 可不经意间发现有只虫子, 将她吓呆了, 于是迅速将花抛出, Monica毫无意识地接住了花束, 则引出了上文。了解情景后, 省略部分立即得到还原:看来下一个结婚的就是你!
三、情景省略意义的推理
在实际交际中, 说话人并不是不能违反准则的, 有时说话人会不讲究表面上是否遵守准则。为了表达自己意欲表达的言下之意, 说话人会故意在表面上违反这些准则, 这时听话的一方要认定对方还是遵守着合作原则的, 说话人之所以违反准则, 其目的是要引起听话人的注意, 要求对他所说的话不要作一般字面的理解, 而要懂得其中的隐含意义, 猜度出他违反准则的意图。根据语用学, 语用推理是指以词或句的表面意义为依据, 考察与该词、句运用相关的各种因素, 如:具体语境、语调、重音等, 从而悟出该词、句所表达的隐含意义。
言语交际双方所说的话都必须和整个话题, 以及前面所说的话语相关联。情景省略句的语义联系一般隐藏在话语的深层, 也就是说虽然已经弄清词语的表层意义, 即字义, 但不一定能理解其深层意义, 即“用意”。而此用意的推理是以双方共有的认知环境所提供的信息为基础。这个意义是无法通过句法分析获得, 必须借助说话人的共知信息和共同的生活经验等语境要素。从上文中例句的分析过程中可以获知, 情景省略句的意义除了依靠认知语境的词语信息和百科信息进行推理外, 在某些情况下, 还需要借助逻辑信息。
情景省略不同于篇章省略, 被省信息不能完全从语篇中获得, 而只能从具体情境, 即情景语境中还原, 是由语言的情景来决定到底省略了什么。结合会话含意理论分析得出, 情景省略主要是违反合作原则中数量准则的产物。根据胡壮麟对情景语境的阐释, 并综合《老友记》这部情景剧中的典型范例, 观察到了情景省略的四种类型:省参与者, 省话题型, 省事件型和省非言语行为型, 然而情景省略的理解需要借助具体语境、语调、重音、逻辑信息等各因素进行语用推理。
参考文献
[1]Hockett.现代语言学教程.北京:北京大学出版社, 1988.
[2]冯运莲.英语省略的探讨.湖北民族学院学报, 1995 (1) .
[3]胡壮麟.语篇的衔接与连贯.上海:上海外语教育出版社, 1994.
[4]胡壮麟, 姜望琪.语言学高级教程.北京:北京大学出版社, 2003.
[5]唐红云.中英省略比较研究.西北工业大学, 2001.
一、 语境省略
在日常会话、打电话、请求、祝愿、感叹等不同交际情境中,交际者往往只突出要表达的主要意思的词语,省略次要的或与前面重复的词语。例如:
1. —Where are you going? 你打算去哪儿?
—(I’m going) To attend a lecture. 我打算参加一个讲演。
2. —Hello, is that Wang Ping? 喂,是王萍吗?
—(This is) Wang Ping speaking. 我是王萍。
3. (Pass me) The pen please. 请把钢笔给我。
[中考题例]
1. —What a nice day! Let’s go for a picnic on the beach together.
— ______.
A. GoodbyeB. Good idea
C. Good jobD. Good day(2006年杭州市)
2. —What’s your favorite subject, Mike?
—______ . It’s interesting.
A. ToysB. MathC. T-shirtsD. E-mail
(2006年北京市)
3. —How long has Eliza been a nurse?
—______ .
A. Since 2002B. Four years agoC. In 2002(2006年長沙市)
4. —Hello! Is that Smith?
—Smith______.
A. speakingB. sayingC. talking(2004年武汉市)
5. —I did quite well in the school sports meeting.
—______ .
A. Congratulations!B. Don’t worry.
C. That’s all right.(2005年重庆市)
6. —I am going to have a trip to Hezhou after the exam.
—Really?______!
A. Have a nice timeB. Congratulations
C. It’s nice of youD. OK(2005年贺州市)
7. —Our school basketball team lost the game last week.
—______ .
A. Good luck.B. Well done!
C. I’m glad to hear that.D. What a pity!(2006年合肥市)
二、 替代省略
替代省略是用特定的词语替代要重复的词语的一种省略形式,通常有以下几种替代方式。
1) 用 do, be以及情态动词或助动词替代要重复的动词及其后面的宾语、表语、状语或其它成分。例如:
—Do you like Chinese food?你喜欢中国的食物吗?
—Yes, I do (=I like Chinese food).是的,我喜欢。
[中考题例]
1. —Don’t you think Hong Zhanhui is the boy who moves China?
—______ . We must 1earn from him.
A. Yes,I doB. No,I don’t
C. Yes, I hope soD. No,I’m not sure(2006年泰州市)
2. —He is often late for school, isn’t he?
—______ . He always goes to school earlier than others.
A. Yes, he isB. No, he isn’t
C. Yes, of courseD. No, sometimes(2006年南通市)
3. —Have you heard from your sister yet?
—______ . No news is good news.
A. Yes, I haveB. I don’t mind
C. No problemD. No, I haven’t(2005年黑龙江省课改)
2) 用替代词so与think, hope, call, believe, expect, suppose, do 等动词或 be afraid搭配,替代其后一个表示肯定意义的宾语或宾语从句。
[中考题例]
1. —Emma has been ill for a week. Is she all right now?
—______ . The teacher says she can come to school tomorrow.
A. I think soB. That’s it
C. I’m afraid notD. That’s true(2006年宜昌市)
2. —Is Mrs Black really badly ill?
—______ . She’s in hospital.
A. I don’t think soB. No, he isn’t
C. I don’t hope soD. I’m afraid so(2004年重庆市)
3. —Do you think the rain will stop tomorrow?
—______ . It has rained for half a month. It’s too wet.
A. I hope thatB. I’m sure it will
C. I’m afraid it willD. I hope so(2004年山西省)
3) 将 not 放在某些动词或 be afraid, perhaps, probably等词语之后,替代其后面的一个表示否定意义的从句。例如:
—Is there going to be a sports meeting next week? 下周开运动会吗?
—I suppose not (=there isn’t a sports meeting next week). 我想不会开运动会。
—Is he coming today? 他今天要来吗?
—Perhaps not(=Perhaps he isn’t coming today). 或许不会来。
4) 用 to 替代要重复的动词不定式(短语)。例如:
You may ask me some questions if you want to. 如果你想问问题就可以问。
I’ll go to his birthday party if he invites me to. 如果他邀請我,我会去参加他的生日聚会的。
[中考题例]
—Would you like to go out for a walk with us?
—______ , but I must write a letter to my pen friend now.
A. Of course notB. That’s all right
C. I’d love toD. Yes, I do(2006年宁波市)
三、 惯用省略
用特定的惯用句式表示重复前面句子的内容,在中考英语试题中通常以下面三种形式命题。
1) 若两个句子的主语相同,前面的句子是肯定句,而后面的句子重复前面句子的内容时,用“so + 主语 + be动词/助动词/情态动词”的形式。
2) 若两个句子的主语不相同,前面的句子是肯定句,而后面的句子重复前面句子的内容时,用“so + be动词/助动词/情态动词 + 主语”的形式。
3) 若两个句子的主语不相同,前面的句子是否定句,当后面的句子重复前面句子的内容时,用“neither/nor + be动词/助动词/情态动词 + 主语”的形式。例如:
1. —It was cold yesterday. 昨天很冷。
—So it was. 昨天的确很冷。
2. —He has finished his homework. 他做完了他的家庭作业。
—So have I. 我也做完了我的家庭作业。
3. Henry didn’t go to church, nor did his sister. 亨利没有去做礼拜,他的妹妹也没有去。
[中考题例]
1. —You have made great progress in English.
—______ . That’s why I got an A in the English exam.
A. So I haveB. So have I
C. So I doD. So do I(2006年河南省)
2. —I usually go to school on foot. And you?
—______ .
A. So do IB. So I have
C. Nor do ID. Neither have I(2006年合肥市)
3. —Peter doesn’t know much French.
—______ .
A. So do IB. So am I
C. Neither do ID. Neither am I(2005年山东省)
仿真训练:
1. —How is everything?
—______ .
A. Very well, thank youB. Not too bad
C. I’m all right, thanksD. Not at all
2. —Is Professor Tate very sick?
—I’m afraid______.
A. soB. thisC. toD. that
3. —Peter fell off a tall tree. I think his leg is broken.
—Oh! I______.
A. do not hope toB. do not hope
C. hope not soD. hope not
4. —Shall I wake you up tomorrow?
—Yes,______.
A. please doB. you shall
C. you willD. you may
5.______, I’ll tell you what to do.
A. If necessaryB. It is necessary
C. NecessaryD. If it necessary
6. John: Do you happen to have twenty dollars with you?
Jack:______?
John: I want to buy a notebook.
A. How do you want to buyB. How much
C. What forD. When can you pay me back
7. —Do you mind my taking this seat?
—______ .
A. Yes, sit down, pleaseB. No, of course not
C. Yes, take it, pleaseD. No, you can’t take it
8. —Do you follow me?
—Yes,______.
A. it is goodB. I willC. perfectlyD. very good
9. —Don’t forget to take your dictionary to school when you go to school.
—______ .
A. I’ll take itB. I don’t take itC. I won’tD. I shall
10. —Will you stay for lunch?
—Sorry,______. My brother is coming to see me.
A. I mustn’tB. I can’tC. I needn’tD. I won’t
11. —Hello, is Zhang Hua in?
—______ .
A. I speakB. I amC. I’m inD. Speaking
12. —Good morning, Grand Hotel.______
—Hello, I’d like to book a room for the nights of the 18th and 19th.
A. What can I do for you?B. Just a minute, please.
C. What?
13. —Alice, why didn’t you come yesterday?
—I______, but I had an unexpected visitor.
A. hadB. wouldC. was going toD. did
14. —John won the championship in the tennis match.
—______ .
A. So he didB. So did heC. So he did, tooD. So he does
15. —Someone took my letter away.
—Well, I didn’t and______ Alice.
A. neither didB. nor did
C. neither wasD. nor was
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