英语语法倒装结构（精选7篇）
never, no, neither, not only, hardly, scarcely, little, seldom, rarely, not until, nowhere, at no time, on no account, in no respect, in no sense, by no means, in no way, no longer, no less, no more, no sooner than, under no circumstances, in vain, still less。如：
Not only is its direct attack on their discipline, it bypasses the essence of what sociologists focus on.
Under no circumstances should we do anything that will benefit ourselves but harm the interests of the state.
2.以only修饰状语开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装
Only when you have obtained sufficient data can you come to a sound conclusion.
3.以下列副词或短语开头的句子，句子的主谓要部分倒装
often, so, well, to such a degree, to such an extent, to such extremes, to such a point，many a time。如：
So involved with their computers do the children become that leaders at summer computer camps often have to force them to break for sports and games.
4.以下列副词开头的句子，句子的主谓要全部倒装
(1)出于修辞需要，表示方向的副词：out, down, in, up, away, on。如：
Down jumped the burglar from the tenth floor when he heard someone shouted at him.
(2)出于习惯用法：here, there, now, thus, hence, then。如：
Now is your turn. There goes the bell.
5.让步从句的倒装
(1)as引导让步状语从句，必须采用倒装结构，但不是主谓倒装，而是将被强调的内容置于句首。如：
Much as I have traveled, I have never seen anyone to equal her, in thoroughness, whatever the job.
(2)出现在句型be+主语+其他, come what may中。如：
Our civilization has accumulated an incredible amount of knowledge―be it scientific or artistic.
The business of each day, be it selling goods or shipping them, went quite smoothly. Come what may, I’ll be on your side.
6.比较从句的倒装
as, than引导的比较从句中，如果主语是名词短语且较长，经常采用倒装结构(不倒装也可以)。注意：这种结构主语一般为名词，如果是代词则不倒装。如：
英国著名语言学家Dick Allwright在行动研究的基础上提出了以理解语言课堂生活质量为宗旨的“探索型实践”( Exploratory Practice),其国内外影响正在逐步扩大。探索型实践是一种教学研究,它强调对教学采取综合性研究并突出创设真实的课堂环境的重要性,让所有学生都参与其中,在和谐的环境中发展他们的语言能力。笔者在实践的基础上,结合《标准》的要求与探索型实践的理论,在高中英语语法教学中探索运用CASES模式,以达到在生动、具体的语言环境中,让学生通过自己的观察,主动探索归纳出语法知识,并把语法用于实践交流中。
CASES是Context(语境)、Appreciating(欣赏)、Seeking(探索)、Experiencing(体验)和Sharing(分享)五个单词的首字母,意为在教师创设的能激发学生兴趣的语境中,师生、生生进行互动,引导学生欣赏语言中隐含的语法结构及其传递的语法意义,并让学生通过观察或小组讨论,探索出语法规则,然后在训练中进行体验,增强语感,最后通过口头交际或书面表达分享学习成果。CASES模式引导学生在自然、丰富的语言环境中主动探索语法规律,自主归纳出语法规则,从而避免了教学的满堂灌现象,也帮助学生构建了比较完整的英语语法知识体系,能在实践中正确运用英语语法,提高语言输出质量,形成较强的语用能力。
下面,以倒装句的教学为例,谈谈CASES模式在高中英语语法教学中的具体运用。
一、展示语境
热身阶段,笔者通过PPT呈现一则阅读文本,拉开语法学习的序幕。文本如下:
Oh no, not again!
People from all over the world sat silently in theShooting Hall. Here came Emmons, the Athens’loser. He fired. The target was right this time.
However, the people stood up with a scream.Hardly could people believe their eyes. He only got4.4 and fell to the fourth.
Never did Emmons expect it. In no time did hefreeze. This unlucky guy, Emmons was leading themoment ago. Not until the last shot did he lose.
Gone was the gold. So was the silver. Even thebronze ... So depressed was he that he came up to hiswife. He couldn’t accept it. Nor could his wife. Shedid nothing but hug him deeply.
Fortunately, he missed the gold, but not love.
【评析】上课伊始,笔者利用一则有关体育的阅读文本吸引学生的兴趣。并且此文本含有不同形式的倒装句式,为倒装句教学创设了语境,也为学生接下来积极、有效地参与课堂活动做好了铺垫。
二、欣赏和感悟
学生看完文本后,教师要求他们找出文中出现的倒装句。学生很快发现并找出了各种倒装句式,然后教师在幻灯片上进行呈现。接着,教师引导学生欣赏倒装句的语法结构并领悟其意义。最后,要求学生把找出的倒装句转变成正常语序的句子,加深学生对倒装句的理解和认知。
【评析】在学生找出倒装句后,让学生比较正常语序的句子和倒装句,既肯定了学生的发现,又让学生对倒装句留下了深刻印象。
三、探索和探究
在学生比较了正常语序的句子和倒装句后,教师引导学生探究倒装句及正常语序句子的不同结构及完全倒装和部分倒装两种不同形式倒装句的特点。
接着,结合学生以前接触过的倒装句及对以上例子的观察,师生共同探讨,归纳出如下一些完全倒装和部分倒装的语法规则。
here, there, now, then, out, in, up, down, away放句首,句子应完全倒装。
not ... until ..., so ... that ... 位于句首,主句的谓语动词部分倒装,从句不倒装。
hardly, never, nor, seldom, little, rarely, scarcely等含有否定意义的副词或连词位于句首时,引起部分倒装。
【评析】通过比较,学生发现了倒装句和正常语序句子的不同;通过探究,学生发现了完全倒装和部分倒装两种不同形式倒装句的特点;通过师生共同探讨,学生归纳出了倒装句的语法规则。这样的教学使学生聚精会神,不但达到激趣、诱思的目的,更加深了学生对知识的理解。
四、体验和巩固
语法教学要及时体验,当场巩固,让学生在大量的语言实践中熟悉语法规则,正确运用语法知识,从而提高学生的语用能力。有了前面的探究和归纳,此时给他们适当的练习很有必要,如改写句子、翻译练习、文章润色等由浅入深的操练。操练中学生不但体验到不同形式的语法练习,而且在此过程中也巩固了所学语法内容。语法课离不开体验和巩固,在欣赏、感悟、探索、探究之后的体验和巩固能够让学生动口、动手、动情、动脑,为之后把所学语法用于实践交流打好基础。
(一)改写句子
笔者出示下面两个正常语序的句子要求学生改写成倒装句。
1. Emmons could hardly believe that he lost thegold medal again.
→Hardly could Emmons believe that he lost thegold medal again.
2. We were so thrilled to see three Five-starredRed Flags rising that our eyes were filled with tears.
→So thrilled were we to see three Five-starredRed Flags rising that our eyes were filled with tears.
(二)翻译练习
请学生用倒装句翻译以下三个句子。
1.山顶有一座古老的寺庙。
2.那记号很小,我几乎看不到。
3.直到河里所有的鱼都死了,村民们才意识到污染是多么的严重。
(答案分别为:1. On the top of the hill stands an old temple. 2. So small was the mark that I could hardly see it. 3. Not until all the fish died in the riverdid the villagers realize how serious the pollution was.)
(三)文章润色
教师发给学生一份有关描述抢劫事件的材料,要求学生根据先前对倒装句语法规则的归纳将材料中的相关句子改写成倒装句。
【评析】在此环节学生体验了大量倒装句的语言材料,增强了语感,为真实的交际做好了准备。多样化的课堂操练形式让学生从丰富的课堂活动中,从不同的角度体验和掌握语言项目。学生通过参与课堂互动,既运用了语法知识,又培养了交际能力。
五、运用与分享
通过欣赏、探索和体验,学生头脑中已有了一定的倒装句概念。在此基础上再引导学生运用倒装句进行写作,学以致用,进一步巩固所学知识。笔者请学生写一篇描述某人物给自己带来正能量的文章,内容应包括该人物的性格、品质及如何激励我们努力学习的,并且要求学生在写作时合理使用新学的倒装句。
一方面为了帮助掌握不牢固的学生,另一方面也为了让学生掌握得更全面、更系统,笔者在幻灯片上呈现以下与倒装句有关的副词或连词:“here(there, now, then) out, in, up, down, away”,“never,nor, seldom, little, hardly, rarely, scarcely”,“notuntil ... ”,“Not only ... but also ..., so ... that ...”。
等学生完成写作之后,笔者抽取一两份学生的优秀习作进行展示,供学生取长补短,共同提高。
【评析】以书面表达的形式让学生运用倒装句,这样既让学生回顾、总结了所学的语言知识,又给了学生足够的自由发挥和创造性运用语言的空间。而分享优秀的作品,既使学生所学的语法知识得到巩固,又让学生有学有所成的成就感,体验到学习的快乐,从而激发他们进行更深层次的自主探究学习。
关键词： 高等学校英语应用能力考试 倒装语法 真题
高等学校英语应用能力的考试大纲明确指出，该考试的目的是考查学生的英语语言知识和技能，以及使用英语处理有关一般业务和涉外交际的基本能力。考试笔试试题分为听力理解、语法结构、阅读理解、翻译（英译汉）和 写作（或汉译英）五个部分。其中考查学生运用语法知识的能力的试题占总分的15%，在需要学生掌握的语法结构里就包括倒装语法。本文结合历年高等学校英语应用能力考试真题，和读者一起学习倒装语序的用法，备战应用能力考试。
英语语法的正常表述和中文是一样的，都依次遵循“主谓宾”的顺序，再根据需要加上定语、状语或补语。但是在某些情况下，由于语境的需要，如强调句中某一成分、注重上下文衔接等，我们会根据语法规则，更改句子的正常语序，把一些本来在主语之后的句子成分提到主语前面，这种语法现象我们就称为倒装。根据句子谓语动词提至主语前面的不同情况，我们把倒装分为部分倒装和全部倒装。在这里我们主要学习部分倒装。
部分倒装，顾名思义，即谓语动词的一部分前置到主语的前面。在做题的过程中，考生要准确把握的是需要把谓语动词的哪一部分提到主语的前面，这主要由句子的时态决定。如果句子的时态是现在完成时、过去完成时或者谓语动词部分含有情态动词，这个时候我们只需要分别将have，has，had或情态动词提到主语的前面，句子的其他成分不变；如果句子的时态是一般现在时、一般过去时，我们就需要根据时态分别借助助动词do，does或did，将它们提至主语前面，这时别忘了将相对应的谓语动词变回动词原形，仍然跟在主语后面。这是部分倒装句的做题基本思路，在掌握此思路的基础上，我们只需要记牢英语当中在哪些情况之下需要用倒装语序就可以了。
一
“Only+状语”放句首时，句子必须用部分倒装语序。我们可以看看下面几个真题。
1.Only after the secretary saw the train disappear in sight ？摇 ？摇 the railway station.（2015年12月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.he leaves B.has he left C.he left D.did he leave
当秘书看到火车消失在视野中时，他才离开车站。“离开车站”这个动作发生在“火车消失”之后，所以我们在选择时态时，前后一致，用过去的某个时态，而在四个选项中，只有D符合要求，因此选择答案D。
2.Only after we really understand your business ？摇 ？摇 a suitable insurance program for you.（2013年6月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.can we recommend B.we can recommend
C.recommend we can D.recommend can we
这道题我们只要记住了当“Only+状语”放句首时，句子必须用部分倒装语序，而且部分倒装的语法原则是把助动词或情态动词提至主语的前面，正确答案就凸显了，符合条件的答案为A。
3.Only when we hurried to the airport ？摇 ？摇 the flight was cancelled.（2010年6月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.we found B.did we find
C.have we found D.we have found
正确答案：B
4.Only when we had finished all the work ？摇 ？摇 that it was too late to take a bus home.（2008年6月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.did we realize B.will we realize
C.we did realize D.we will realize
正确答案：A
二
固定的连词搭配，如no sooner ....than ， hardly/scarcely...when （一……就……）， not ..until ..（直到……才……）等引起的主句，而这些连词又在句首时，那主句部分需要用部分倒装。如：
1.No sooner ？摇 ？摇 his job in a small company than he received an offer from a big international firm.（2013年12月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
正确答案：C
A.he quit B.he had quit C.had he quit D.does he quit
2.No sooner ？摇 ？摇 than I realized Id left the document at home.（2012年12月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.have we sat down B.had we sat down
C.we had sat down D.we sat down
正确答案：B
3.Not until she arrived at the meeting room ？摇 ？摇 she had forgotten to bring the document.（2009年6月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.she realized B.did she realize
C.she did realize D.does she realize
正确答案：B
4.Not until that day ？摇 ？摇the importance of good manners in a job interview （2008年12月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.did I realize B.I did realize
C.I have realized D.have I realized
正确答案：A
5.Not until yesterday ？摇 ？摇 anything about the project that will be completed soon.
（2007年6月高职高专英语应用能力A级真题）
A.did I learn B.have I learnt C.I learnt D.that I learnt
正确答案：A
在英语中,主语和谓语的语序通常是主语在前,谓语在后。但有时由于语法或修辞的需要将谓语的部分或全部提到主语前面,这样的语序叫做“倒装“
倒装的种类:部分倒装----助动词情态动词+主语+谓语的实义动词 全部倒装----谓语+主语 一.在特殊句型中: 1.在疑问句中: eg: Is this your cell phone number? What do you prefer? 2.在感叹句中: eg: How happy they are!What fun it is!3.在虚拟条件句中: eg: If I were a bird, I could fly freely.=……
Had I known it earlier, I wouldn’t have lent him the money.Long live peace!May our friendship be everlasting!4.直接引语的一部分或全部放在句首时;eg: “You should have been here earlier,” said the teacher.“You,” said his father, “do the housework.” 二.在以下结构中用全部倒装: 1.在there be句型中;
eg: There are thousands of people gathering on the square.There lived an old fisherman in the village.2.在“here, there, now, thus, then+动词+主语”的句子中,(动词为be, go, come等;eg: Now comes my turn.There goes the bell.Then came the order to leave.3.在“out in, up down, offaway”以及表示地点的介词词组位于句首时;eg: Away went the crowed one by one.In came a stranger in black.Down fell the leaves.On the floor were piles of old books.注意:若主语是人称代词,则用正常语序----adv.+主语+谓语;eg: Out she went.Here we are.4.有时为了强调表语,构成“表语+连系动词+主语”结构;eg: Lucky is she who was chosen to be a leader.Gone are the days when women were looked down upon!在以下结构中用部分倒装: 1.含有否定意义的adv或conj(not, seldom, little, hardly, never, rarely, nowhere, not until, not only, by no means等位于句首时;eg: He cannot speak an English word.----Not an English word can he speak.I have never seen him before.----Never ……
The mother didn’t leave the room until the baby fell asleep.----Not until the baby fell asleep did the mother leave the room.注意:not until引导的句子,主句倒装,从句不用倒装。
2.only位于句首,且修饰状语时,主句倒装;eg: Only in this way can you use the computer well.只有意识到这门课的重要,我们才能学好它。Only she can settle this problem.(TF? 3.so用在句首,表示另一主语“也”时,用“So + be(have,助动词或情态动词+主语”结构(有时也用as替代;若表示另一主语“也不”时,用“NorNeither + be(have,助动词或情态动词+主语”结构;eg: She has been to Heifei.So have we.It is cold today.So it is.(TF? She won’t accept that invitation.NeitherNor will he.注意:(1“So + 主语+ be(have,助动词或情态动词”表示对前面所说的话加以肯定,译为“的确如此”;
(2若前面所说的既有肯定又有否定,或前后的谓语动词形式不一致, 用“It is the same with + 主语”或“So it is with + 主语”;
eg: He worked hard, but didn’t pass the exam.So it was with his sister.She is a teacher and she enjoys teaching.So it is with him.4.在”as(尽管”引导的让步状语从句中;(可以换成though eg: Shortest though she is, she is the richest.(最高级前不用冠词 Child as he is, he knows a lot.(单数名词前不用a Fail as I did, I would try again.(动词提前,助动词留在原位
Hard as he tried, he couldn’t pass the exam.(副词提前
5.在”so…that…”和”such…that…”句型中的so和such位于句首时,用”sosuch + adj + 主语+谓语”;
一、倒装句之全部倒装
全部倒装是只将句子中的谓语动词全部置于主语之前，此结构通常只用与一般现在时和 一般过去时。常见的结构有：
1)here，there，now，then，thus等副词置于句首，谓语动词常用be，come，go，lie，run.
There goes the bell.
Then came the chairman.
Here is your letter.
2)表示运动方向的副词或地点状语置于句首，谓语表示运动的动词。
Out rushed a missile from under the bomber.
Ahead sat an old woman.
注意：上述全部倒装的句型结构的主语必须是名词，如果主语是人称代词则不能完全倒装。例如：Here he comes. Away they went.
二、倒装句之部分倒装
部分倒装是指将谓语的一部分如助动词或情态倒装至主语之前。如果句中的谓语没有助动词或情态动词，则需添加助动词do，does或did，并将其置于主语之前。
1)句首为否定或半否定的词语，如no，not，never，seldom，little，hardly，at no time，in no way，not until… 等。
Never have I seen such a performance.
Nowhere will you find the answer to this question.
Not until the child fell asleep did the mother leave the room.
当Not until引出主从复合句，主句倒装，从句不倒装。
注意：如否定词不在句首不倒装。
I have never seen such a performance.
The mother didn‘t leave the room until the child fell asleep.
典型例题
1)Why can‘t I smoke here?At no time___ in the meeting-room
A. is smoking permitted
B. smoking is permitted
C. smoking is it permitted
D. does smoking permit
答案A. 这是一个倒装问题，
当否定词语置于句首以表示强调时，其句中的主谓须用倒装结构。这些否定词包括no，little，hardly，seldom，never，not only，not until等。本题的正常语序是Smoking is permitted in the meeting-room at no time.
2)Not until the early years of the 19th century ___ what heat is.
A. man did know
B. man know
C. didn‘t man know
D. did man know
答案D. 看到Not until…的句型，我们知道为一倒装句，答案在C，D 中选一个。改写为正常语序为，Man did not know what heat is until the early years of the 19th. 现在将not提前，后面就不能再用否定了，否则意思就变了。
三、以否定词开头作部分倒装
如Not only…but also，Hardly/Scarcely…when，No sooner… than
Not only did he refuse the gift，he also severely criticized the sender.
Hardly had she gone out when a student came to visit her.
No sooner had she gone out than a student came to visit her.
虚拟语气
虚拟语气是通过特殊的谓语动词形式来表达的愿望、假设、怀疑、猜测或建议等语气，它不表示客观存在。
一、 虚拟语气在单句中的用法
常用来表示祝愿、采用固定的倒装句式。例如：
Long live the Peoples Republic of China!中华人民共和国万岁！
be happy! 快乐！
have a good time! 玩得愉快！
succeed! 成功！
make progress! 进步！
二、虚拟语气在复合句中的用法：
1． 在非真实性条件句与主句中的用法
1） 表示与现在事实相反
条件从句 主句
一般过去时（be多用于were） would/should/could/might＋动词原形
例如：If I were you,I should accept the invitation.
如果我是你，我会接受邀请的。
If I had time,I would go there.
如果我有空，我就去那儿。
2） 与过去事实相反
条件从句 主句
过去完成时 would/should/could/might＋have done
例如：If you had come earlier,you couldnt/wouldnt have missed the bus.
如果你早点来，你就不会错过那辆公共汽车了。
If he had seen you yesterday,he would have returned your book.
如果他昨天见到了你，他就会还你的书的。
3） 与将来事实可能相反
条件从句 主句
一般过去时（be多用were）
should do,were to do would/should/could/might＋动词原形
例如：If it should rain/were to rain/rained tomorrow,the sports meet would be
put off.万一明天下雨，运动会就推迟。（事实上明天下雨的可能性不大。）
If you dropped/should drop/were to drop the glass,it would break.
万一杯子掉下来会打碎的。
4） if的省略
如果条件句中有were,had,should 等助动词，可将if省略，而把were,had或should
置于句首,来表达以if引导的条件句的相同意思。
例如：Should it rain/were it to rain tomorrow,the sports meet would be put off./Had he seen you yesterday,he would have returned your book.
5)条件句或主句的省略
当有上下文或上下句中的语言环境暗示的时候，表示虚拟语气的从句或主句往往可以省略，以避免重复。
例如：--Why didnt you attend the party yesterday?
--I would/should have,but I was too busy then.
I was surprised that you didnt like this job.You could have done it better.（后面省略了if you had liked it.）
6)混合时间条件句与主句
条件句与主句的动作发生的时间有先后之差，应按各自动作时间搭配好相应的结构形式。
例如：If the teacher hadnt been ill yesterday,who could give us a lecture now?/If you had reviewed the lesson,you would answer the question now.
7)含蓄条件句与主句
即用without(＝but for),or(else)代替if从句。
例如：Without/But for his help,we wouldnt have made such great progress.
＝If his help,we wouldnt have made such great progress.
2.在as if/as though引导的状语从句中用法：
在as if/as though引导的状语从句中，谓语动词多用倒退一个时间段的方式来表达虚拟语气。例如：
The man speaks as if he were a foreigner./The speaker told us a lot about that country as though he had been there many times./They talked as if they had been good friends for years.
注：as if/as though从句中不一定都要用虚拟语气。如果情况真实性、可能性很大，就要用正常时态来描绘。例如：It looks as if it is going to rain.天看起来象要下雨。（下雨的可能性很大。）
3．在宾语从句、表语从句、主语从句中的用法：
1） 在wish后的宾语从句中的用法：
A．与过去事实相反的愿望：宾从谓语为“had done”形式。例如：I wish I had passed yesterdays exam.要是我昨天的考试及格了该多好。
B．与现在事实相反的愿望：宾从谓语为“did”形式。例如：He wishes he was as clever as you./I wish I had a large room to live in.
C．表示将来愿望：宾从谓语用“would/could do”形式。例如：How I wish I would go abroad next year!
2)在suggest,propose,demand,request,require,order,insist等动词后的宾语从句中，谓语为“(should) do”形式。例如：I suggest/propose/demand/request/require/order/
insist that he(should) be sent to the nearest hospital as soon as possible.
3)在“It is (about/high) time＋that从句”结构中，that从句的谓语用一般过去
时或“should do”形式。例如：It is high time he 他该开始了。
4)在表语从句、同位语从句中的用法：在suggestion,proposal,request,requirement,
advice等名词后的表语从句、同位语从句中，谓语用“(should) do”形式。例如：
My suggestion is that we (should) send a few comrades to help the other groups./He gave an order that the work be done at once.
虚拟语气考点分析
1．--Alice,why didnt you come yesterday?
--I _____,but I had an unexpected visitor. (NMET)
A.had B.would C.was going to D.did
析:此题A、D明显不合上下文，因为乙方没有去。B选项若为would have则成立，可以理解为I would have come if I hadnt had an unexpected visitor.的简略式。但此处是would,故应排除。只有was going to可得体地表达“我原本打算去的，但是有不速之客造访”这一意思。
2．If there were no subjunctive,English ______ much easier. (NMET)
A.will be B.would have been C.could have been D.would be
析：观察题干，可知全句表达的是与现在事实相反的虚拟语气。故答案为D。
3．The guard at the gate insisted that everybody ______ the rules. (NMET)
A.obeys B.obey C.will obey D.would obey
析：根据insist后的宾语从句谓语要用(should) do形式规律，可定正确答案是B。
4．I wish I _____ you yesterday.
A.seen B.did see C.had seen D.were to see
析：此题表与过去事实相反的原望，答案应为C。
5．-- If he _____ ,he _____ that food.
-- Luckily he was sent to the hospital immediately. (NMET)
A.was warned;would not take B.had been warned;would not have taken
C.wuld be warned;had not taken D.would have been warned;had not taken
析：从对话看，是表达与过去事实相反的虚拟语气，故答案为B。
6.Without electricity human life _____ quite different today. (NMET)
A.is B.will be C.would have been D.would be
析：without引出一个含蓄条件句，主句表述的是与现在事实相反的虚拟语气，故答案为D。
7．When a pencil is partly in a glass of water,it look as if it _____. (NMET)
A.breaks B.has broken C.were broken D.had been broken
析；放入水中的铅笔看上去是断的，但实际上并非如此，因此是与现在的事实相反，这时as if从句谓语要用一般过去时，故答案为C。
8．You didnt let me drive.If we _____ in turn,you _____ so tired. (NMET)
A.drove;didnt get B.drove;wouldnt get
C.were driving;wouldnt get D.had driven;wouldnt have got
析：观察题干，可知if从句表述与过去事实相反的假设，因此答案只能是D。
9．I didnt see your uncle at the party.If he _____ ,he would have said hello to
me.
A.would come B.had come C.came D.did come
析：观察题目上下文，特别是第二句的主句谓语为 would have said，可知if从句表述的是与过去事实相反的愿望，因此答案为B。
10．_____ it _____ for your help,I couldnt have made any progress.
A.Had;not been B.Should;not be C.Did;not be D.Not;be
析：根据主句谓语形式，可知从句要用had done形式，故应选A，Had it not been for your help＝If it had not been for your help.（要不是你帮忙的话）
11．Mr Smith was badly ill,or he _____ our dinner party.
A.should come to B.would have attended
C.would come to D.should have attended
析：or可引导含蓄条件句，表达虚拟语气。根据此题内容，可知是与过去事实相反的假设，故答案为B。
倒装句型
英语的倒装有两大类型：
一、 全部倒装：指谓语全部置于主语之前的倒装，有下列几种情况：
1． here,there,away,in,out,down,up,off,back,now,then等在句首时引起全部倒装。
例如：
Here is a letter for you./There goes the last train./The door opened,and in came Mr Smith./Away went the boy./Down came the rain and up went the umbrellas./Back came the others./Out rushed the boy with an apple in his hand./Then came a noise like thunder./Now comes the bus.
2． 介词短语或方位名词词组作地点状语位于句首，引起全部倒装。例如：
In the corner of the room stands a writing－table./South of the city lies a big factory./Under the bed lies a cat./In these oceans live huge numbers of a small fish 5cm long.
注：以上两种完全倒装主语必须是名词，谓语常是表示方位或转移的不及物动词，如lie,live,sit,stand,be,come,go,rise,walk,run等，主语若是人称代词或谓语不属上述动词之列，则不用完全倒装。例如：
Here it rains a lot every month of the year./Here we are!/Off you go!/Then she went to the shop.
3．在there be 结构中，采用全部倒装语序。例如：
There is a book in the bag.
表 系 主语
4．代词such作表语，意“这样的人”“这样的物”，应置于句首，其后全部倒装。例如：
Such were the facts./Such would be our home in the future.
二、 部分倒装：指部分谓语（如助动词、情态动词）位于主语之前的倒装。有下列一些情况：
1．一般疑问句，选择疑问句，反意问句要求部分倒装。例如：Has he finished his work?/Its
a lovely day,isnt it?
2．特殊疑问词不作主语或不作主语的定语的特殊疑问句要求部分倒装。例如：
When did you go there?/Which do you like best?
3．only修饰动词、介词短语、状语从句，并置于句首时，主句中要部分倒装。例如：
Only when the rain stopped did the match start again.
注：“only＋名词/代词”置于句首不要倒装。例如：
Only he can do it.(正) Only can he do it. (误)
4．含有否定意义的副词，如：not,never,neither,nor,seldom,hardly,little等置于句
首时，要求部分倒装。例如：
Hardly can I believe that./Never has he been to the Great Wall./Seldom does she
write to me.
5．not only…but(also)…连接两个分句，not only置于句首，它所引导的这部分要部
分倒装，但but(also)部分不要倒装。例如；
Not only should we study science,but also we should pay attention to politics.
注：若not only…but(also)…连接两个主语，句子不要倒装。
6．not until引起一个短语或引导一个从句置于句首时，主句中要求部分倒装。例如：
Not until he was ten did he go to school./Not until yesterday did I realize what trouble he was in.
7．hardly…when…;no sooner…than…句型中，若hardly,no sooner位于句首时，主句
中要求部分倒装。例如：
Hardly had I entered the room when the phone rang./No sooner had he finished his talk than he was surrounded(包围)by the workers.
8．so表“也”、“同样”意，位于句首时，其后要部分倒装。例如：
You can swim,so can I./If you go,so will I.
倒装语序考点分析
1． Not only _____ polluted but _____ crowded. (上海高考)
A.was the city;were the streets B.the city was;the streets were
C.was the city;the streets were D.the city was;were the streets
析：not only部分要部分倒装，可排除B、D。but(also)部分不要倒装，故C为正确答案。
2． Little _____ about his own safety,though he was in great danger himself.
(上海高考)
A．does he care B.did he care C.he care D.he cared
析：否定意义的Little在句首，该句要倒装，故答案在A、B之中选择一个，因A的时
态不对，故答案为B。
3．Only in this way _____ progess in your English. (NMET)
A.you make B.can you make C.you be able to make D.will you able to come
析：Only 修饰in this way置于句首，句子要部分倒装，故答案为B。
4．Not until all the fish died in the river _____ how serious the pollution was.(NMET)
A.did the villagers realize B.the villagers realized
C.the villagers did realize D.didnt the villagers realize
析：由于Not until在句首，主句要采用部分倒装，这样先可排除B、C，又由于D不
应该用didnt,故A为正确答案。
5．Be quick! _____
A.The bus comes here B.The bus here comes
C.Here the bus comes D.Here comes the bus
析：用一般现在时表示正在发生的动作出现在倒装句中，所以此题答案为D。（＝The bus is coming here.）
6．On the wall _____ two large portraits. (NMET)
A.hangs B.hang C.hanged D.hanging
析：由于介词短语on the wall位于句首，全句要采用完全倒装式，因为主语是复数，所以正确答案为B。
虚拟语气、倒装句型专练
1. Little _____ about what others think.
A.he has cared B.he cares C.cared he D.does he care
2._____ got into the room _____ the telephone rang. (NMET)
A.He hardly had;then B.Hardly had he;when
C.He had not;than D.Not had he;when
3.Only by practising a few hours every day _____ be able to master the language.
(上海高考)
A．you can B.can you C.you will D.will you
4.If I _____ him yesterday I _____ him about it.
A.saw;would ask B.had seen;would have asked
C.had seen;would ask D.saw;would have asked
5.What do you think would happen if there _____ no light during the days?
A.is B.will be C.were D.would be
6._____ you succeed in everything and _____ you be healthy.
A.Hope;wish B.Wish;hope C.May;may D.Expect;hope
7.But for your help,I _____ the place.
A.cant find B.cant have found C.couldnt have found D.havent found
8.If her lawyer _____ here last Sunday,he _____ her from going.
A.had been;would have prevented B.had been;would prevent
C.were;would prevent D.were;would have prevented
9.If it had not been for the liberation,no changes _____ place in my hometown.
A.would have taken B.would have been taken C.will taken D.will be taken
10._____ late tommorrow,who would take her place?
A.Should Miss Green come B.If Miss Green would come
C.Miss Green should come D.If Miss Green comes
11._____ it _____,the crops _____ be saved.
A.Had;rained;could B.Should;rain;would
C.If;rains;should D.Would;rain;should
12.The actor is over fifty.But he acts as if he _____ a young man.
A.is B.will be C.should be D.were
13.It seems as if it ____ already summer now.
A.were B.be C.is D.had been
14.I wish I _____ him the day before yesterday.
A.saw B.could see C.had seen D.was seeing
15.I made the suggestion that they _____ the plan they had made.
A.stick to B.stuck to C.insist D.insisted on
16.It is suggested that a study plan _____ right now.
A.is made B.is to be made C.be made D.had been made
17.They required that we _____ them get in the crops.
A.help B.helped C.were helping D.would help
18.She should have attended the class,but she _____ .
A.hadnt B.hasnt C.didnt D.doesnt
19.It was ordered that no smoking _____ in the library,which made the smokers unhappy.
A.is forbidden B.would permit C.be allowed D.should not be allowed
20.Not once _____ his view of life.
A.did the gentleman mention B.the gentleman mentioned
C.mentioned the gentleman D.does the gentleman mention
21.In the sun _____ a group of young soldiers,gun in hand.
A.did stand B.had stood C.standing D.stood
22. --You forgot to hand in your homework yesterday.
--Good heavens! _____.Here you are.
A.So I did B.So did I C.I did,too D.So you have
23._____ with his slippers on when he heard the terrible noise.
A.Out did he rush B.Rushed he out C.Out rushed he D.Out he rushed
24.No sooner _____ finished the composition _____ the light went out.
A.I had;when B.I had;than C.had I;when D.had I;than
25.It was not until _____ to prepare his lessons.
A. did his father come in that the boy began
B. his father came in that the boy began
C. did his father come in did the boy begin
D. his father came in did the boy begin
26._____,so you are not a friend of mine.
A.I never saw you before B.Never before I have seen you
C.Never before have I seen you D.Never had I seen you before
27.--David has made great progress recently.
--_____,and _____. (上海高考)
A.So he has;so you have B.So he has;so have you
C.So has he;so have you D.So has he;so you have
28.Never _____ till tomorrow what may be done today.
A.put off B.do put off C.did you put off D.you will put off
29.--Have you written these letters?
--No,_____ time to do any other work yet.
A.hardly I have B.I have had hardly
C.I have hardly had D.I hardly have had
30._____ get such a pair of shoes for my son?
A.Where do you think can I B.Do you think where can I
C.Do you think where I can D.Where do you think I can
31.Then _____ that the enemy were gone.
A.the news came B.came the news C.did the news come D.did come the news
32.--What a beautiful bridge,_____?
--Yes,_____?
A.isnt it;isnt it B.is it;is it C.isnt it;it is D.is it;it isnt
33.Along the path _____,on which _____ “Keep off the Grass”.
A.stood some signs;were written B.stood some signs;wrote
C.some signs stood;were written D.some signs stood;wrote
34.He took a taxi so that he _____ there in time.
A.was able to be B.got C.could get D.should get
35.Id rather Tom _____ tomorrow.
A.come B.would come C.came D.will come
36.It is about time you ____ the medicine,sir.
A.will take B.should take C.must take D.are to take
37.If there _____ no electricity in the future,our life _____ change a lot.
A.will be;will B.is;will C.should be;would D.would be;would
38.Without the Communist Party there ____ New China.
A.hadnt been a B.is not a C.would be no D.was not a
39.There _____ a lot of deer in the forest.
A.have B.are C.is D.has
40.From space _____ like a huge water－covered globe(球体).
A.looks the earth B.does look the earth
C.the earth looks D.does the earth look
虚拟语气、倒装句型答案
1－5 D B D B C 6－10 C C A A A 11－15 B D A C A
16－20 C A C C A 21－25 D A D D B 26－30 C B A C D
31－35 B A A C C 36－40 B C C B C
半刚性基层沥青路面因具有较高的强度、刚度、承载能力、抗疲劳破坏能力以及荷载扩散能力,被广泛应用于我国各级公路,尤其是高速公路沥青路面建设中,其为减薄沥青面层厚度、减小路表弯沉、降低工程造价等提供了良好条件。但随着服役年限的增加,半刚性基层沥青路面也暴露出严重早期病害问题,主要包括路面反射裂缝,以及半刚性基层材料的强度、模量的疲劳衰减。
为减少半刚性基层沥青路面的反射裂缝,当前采取的措施主要包括增加沥青面层的厚度,并进行半刚性基层材料的合理组成设计。但这些方法均未能从根本上消除半刚性基层的开裂。在沥青混合料面层与半刚性基层之间铺设级配碎石层,以此作为应力消散层,可减轻半刚性基层路面的反射开裂,这种路面结构称为倒装结构[1]。然而,当前国内外针对倒装结构路面的研究,多侧重于试验路的铺筑与观测,所采取的分析方法则基于现象学,而未深入到路面材料力学与道路结构力学范畴。为此,本文从级配碎石材料力学性能与倒装结构路面结构分析两个角度着手,深入综述并分析已有的研究成果,以期为倒装结构沥青路面研究奠定理论基础,为丰富我国沥青路面结构形式提供理论指导。
1 级配碎石力学性能研究
1.1 级配碎石回弹模量的测试方法
回弹模量是反映级配碎石力学性能的重要指标,也是进行道路结构力学计算与路面结构组合设计的基本材料输入参数。级配碎石属于粒状材料,其在交通荷载的作用下表现出明显的非线性和弹塑性力学特性。在当前的研究中,级配碎石回弹模量的测试方法可以分为室内测试方法、现场测试方法和间接测试方法。
1)室内测试方法。室内测试方法主要包括动三轴试验法、共振柱法、简单剪切实验和空心圆柱实验法等,这些测试方法都受试件尺寸与颗粒粒径所限制。动三轴实验法是应用最为广泛的一种方法。这种方法通常是在围压为常数条件下进行,变围压测试则要求围压与竖向荷载同步改变。由于该测试是在不排水条件下进行,孔隙压力的数据便无从得知。另外,试件与集料界面的边界效应和摩擦也会影响测试结果。由于实验要求试件直径至少10倍于集料最大粒径,而标准试件的最大尺寸是0.15 m,也就是说集料最大粒径为0.015 m,这显然与级配碎石基层集料尺寸不符。
室内动三轴试验方法是测试级配碎石回弹模量的有效方法,但是对于工程实践,该方法复杂且不经济,而且能否代表真实工作状态尚存争论。
2)现场测试方法。最常用的回弹模量现场测试方法是落锤式弯沉仪法(FWD)。落锤式弯沉仪在不需要钻芯取样的情形下给出了一种测试材料回弹模量的间接方法。还有一种较少使用的用光谱分析技术测试路面刚度的方法。这两种方法的主要缺陷在于需要借助于公式推导才能获取反映模量的未知参数,这就使得从测试数据中能提取的有效信息十分有限。
现场测试方法可以克服室内测试方法的缺陷,但是现有现场测试方法都不能有效解决用以描述这种非线性横向各向同性特性材料回弹模量的参数。此外,由于测试过程的不可再现性、对数据分析人员的专业要求和室内/现场测试结果对应关系的不明确性,都加大了现有直接测试手段的难度。
3)P波测试方法。为克服已有室内测试方法和现场测试方法的缺点,研究人员开始关注回弹模量间接测试的方法。Douglas[2]基于应力层分析成像原理,建立了级配碎石基层非线性回弹模量的P波测试方法。P波的传播速度能够反映非饱和集料骨架的刚度特性,基于这一原理,Douglas给出了一种新型的测试级配碎石基层回弹模量的间接方法。
在非饱和级配碎石介质中,P波沿传播方向的速度与其有效应力之间存在着如下关系:
P波速度与材料回弹模量之间存在着如下关系:
其中,ρ为级配碎石介质的密度。
综上,我们就可以得到不同应力水平下回弹模量的取值:
根据式(1)~式(3),我们就可以设定相关实验,通过测定不同应力水平下P波的传播速度反算出该应力水平下材料的回弹模量。
1.2 级配碎石本构模型研究
各向同性线弹性材料的力学特性,可用弹性模量E和泊松比v两个参数描述,横向各向同性线弹性材料需要五个参数进行描述。而对于级配碎石这种回弹模量与应力水平有关的非线性弹性材料,需要更多的参数。因此级配碎石本构模型的建立,需要兼顾最简化计算与最优化预测两个互相矛盾的方面。
当前用以描述级配碎石基层本构关系的模型如表1所示。
根据获取模型方法的不同,可将上述模型分为两类:
1)通过统计学原理建立的回弹模量与各影响因素之间的回归方程。如Rada和Witczak[5]通过回归分析得到的回弹模量ER与饱和度S、压实功EC和平均应力p之间的函数关系式,以及Zaman等[7]建立的回弹模量ER与粘结力C、第一主应力σ1、摩擦角和平均应力p之间的函数关系式。
2)以力学理论为基础从材料内部机理出发建立的本构方程。代表性的如Van Niekerk等[8]建立的回弹模量ER与平均应力p、归一化应力p0、偏应力q和极限偏应力qf之间的函数关系式。
在本构模型参数确定时,既要保证能满足材料的物理特性又要充分提取获得数据的信息。因而,上述两种建模方法各有优劣:回归分析充分利用了实验数据所反映的各个参数之间的数量关系,但受实验条件所限制,当所表征材料的材料特性与获取实验数据时选用材料不同时,往往会有很大的出入,而力学模型在这方面有着较大的优势。
因此,如能将两种方法相结合,就能得到应用更为广泛更能真实反映材料实际工作状态的方法。Douglas借鉴信息论的相关方法实现了二者的融合,给出了一种表征级配碎石材料非线性弹塑性横向各向同性力学性能的本构模型:
其中,υzp,υpp均为常数;p0=1 k Pa。
2 倒装结构路面结构分析
倒装结构路面可以大大减小面层底部裂缝的应力强度因子,有效减缓基层反射裂缝向上的扩展,但是由于级配碎石层的加入,整个沥青路面结构在荷载作用下产生的非线性应力和应变关系的特征更加明显,受力发生了很大变化,就不能照搬以前半刚性结构的经验,因此,有必要对倒装结构路面从结构上深入分析,研究不同参数对结构受力的影响,为结构组合设计提供理论支持。
倒装结构路面级配碎石的回弹模量与应力状态有关,基于线弹性假设的传统路面结构分析方法不能正确反映级配碎石材料的这一特性,因此,不能用于倒装路面的分析与设计。运用有限元方法中用户材料自定义子程序,可以准确表述级配碎石基层横向各向同性非线性弹塑性的本构关系,进而准确分析倒装结构路面在荷载作用下各结构层力学响应,为认识和设计倒装结构路面提供理论依据。
有限元方法用于路面结构分析始于20世纪60年代,并形成适用于不同结构情形的程序代码。目前国内外已有众多学者尝试运用有限元的方法对倒装路面结构进行分析。王春明[9]运用有限元方法,对倒装结构路面温度场的时空分布进行了数值模拟,结果表明,在半刚性基层上铺筑级配碎石和沥青碎石,可改善基层顶部的温度变化幅度及基层内部温度梯度,进而减小半刚性基层温缩引起的反射裂缝。王宏畅和黄晓明[10]利用ABAQUS建立了20节点等参立方体单元的有限元模型,采用奇异等参元法与断裂力学理论,计算分析了倒装结构沥青路面反射裂缝的扩展规律,并采用裂纹形成和裂纹扩张两阶段法预估其疲劳寿命,研究表明级配碎石层可提高沥青路面反射裂缝疲劳寿命,为倒装结构路面的应用提供依据。
Efthymios和Juan[11]以Hertzian型指数方程:
作为级配碎石材料的本构方程,在ABAQUS中建立三维有限元模型,研究了不同材料参数的变化对倒装结构路面性能的影响,数值模拟结果表明,对于给定倒装结构路面,存在一个最佳的沥青面层厚度使得反射裂缝达到最小。王亮[12]将级配碎石基层模量分别取值为200 MPa,300 MPa,400 MPa和500 MPa,通过有限元计算,对比分析了不同级配碎石基层力学参数取值对倒装结构路面面层层底应力、层内剪切应力和基层层底应力的影响,并以此为依据探讨了倒装结构路面的厚度设计。
3 总结与展望
本文介绍了级配碎石回弹模量测试方法和本构模型,阐述了以有限元为基础的倒装结构路面结构分析。可以看出,国内外对于级配碎石的研究尚不成熟,对于以级配碎石为中间层的倒装结构路面分析、设计与应用也尚处于起步阶段,有待于众多学者们今后的进一步研究,对倒装路面后续的探索,我们可作如下展望:
1)级配碎石作为倒装结构路面结构层的重要组成材料,是一种典型颗粒类松散材料,从微细观尺度对它进行力学分析,建立微观力学与宏观性能的关系,是我们今后研究工作的一个新方向。
2)现有级配碎石室内、现场测试方法都存在很多缺陷,对其测试新方法、新仪器的开发也有待进一步探讨。
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