语言与文化英文论文

语言与文化英文论文（精选7篇）

语言与文化英文论文 篇1

Abstract: Language and culture are like two wheels of our human beings.Language is a vehicle that helps record and interpret culture.And culture becomes alive by means of language.However, culture is not only unique to human, but also something concerning animals.As an essential part of the language and culture of a society, idioms are characterized by their concise expressions, rich and vivid.English and Chinese idioms carry the different national cultural characteristics and cultural information.In order to improve our intercultural communication competence, this paper will mainly analyze some idioms on dogs in terms of the Chinese and English religious influence, historical influence, geographical environment influence etc, and explore the possible reasons which can account for these differences.Key words: Animal idioms;dog;Chinese and English culture;difference;similarity

1.Introduction

Language is an indispensable carrier of culture.Culture finds a better representation through language use.Vocabulary, as one of the most important parts of a language, will surely reflect the multi-dimensional image of a society.Countries of different cultures attach various associative meanings to their vocabulary, which is especially obvious in animal terms.Because animals play a significant part in daily life, animal terms are closely related to their own culture, convey different cultural features and messages of their own nation, reflecting their own culture.In the long course of human history, animals, especially dogs, have been keeping a close relationship with human beings and also influencing their living and growth deeply.This relationship brings people all kinds of complex emotions such as fondness, sympathy, disgust and horror.Moreover, many animals have become a kind of symbolism in people’s thinking, and this symbolism is reflected in the language.Languages of all nations contain plenty of words and phrases connected to animals, so 英语11002班 胡 畔 1010291061 do English and Chinese.However, because of different history and culture, the connotations of animal words in one language do not parallel with those in another.Due to the cultural differences of geography, customs, historical allusion, religion and so on, such idioms embody the distinctive characteristics of national culture.And with the development of economy and science, globalization is a more and more obvious phenomenon.The relationship between countries is becoming closer and closer.In order to understand these idioms more clearly and make the international communication more effectively, it is useful and necessary to compare such idioms.The paper will make a comparative study of animals employed in English and Chinese idioms.2.Comparison of connotations of animal idioms in English and Chinese idioms(Take idioms on dogs for example)2.1 Similarities of connotations All humankind lives on the same planet.They have similar environment, psychology, and cognitive ability;therefore, both Chinese and English people nearly have the same knowledge of animals.As a result, they have the same or similar association and give the same cultural connotation to animal words.So it also applies to “dog”.In China, dog is defined as,“哺育动物，种类很多，嗅觉和听觉都很灵敏，毛有黄、白、黑等颜色。是一种家畜，有的可以训练成警犬，有的用来帮助打猎、牧羊等。” And in English, the definition of dog is," an animal with four legs and a tail, often kept as a pet or trained for work, for example, hunting or guarding building.” Judging from it, we can easily notice that Chinese and English have similar knowledge of dog.Meanwhile, both in Chinese and English culture,” dog” can be a negative or positive word.The examples are as followings:(1)He lives a dog’s life——他的日子过得很艰难(2)A lucky dog——幸运儿(3)狗嘴里吐不出象牙(4)犬子

2.2 Differences of connotations The majority of animal words carry different connotations, because of their 英语11002班 胡 畔 1010291061 different natural environment, customs, and society systems.Besides, English history is influenced more by Egypt and Roman, while Chinese history is much more independent.For example: In English: Iove me，love my dog：爱屋及乌 lucky dog：幸运儿

top dog：最重要的人物

every dog has its(his)day：凡人皆有得意 While in Chinese: 狗胆包天 狗急跳墙 狗屁不通 狗崽子

3.Possible Reasons of Differences between English and Chinese Animal Idioms

Every country has its own history and culture personality.So there is more dissimilarity between China and English-speaking countries then similarities between them.There are many sources responsible for these differences, such as natural surroundings, social conditions, religions, customs, psychological reactions, thinking styles, aesthetic standards, and national traits and so on.3.1.Historical Influence

China has experienced more than 2000 years feudal society, and agriculture played the most important role in nation’s economy while other counties already began their industrial age.There are more than 0.9 billion peasants in China;therefore Chinese have a close relationship with animals such as oxen, cows, sheep, silkworms, bee and so on.So we use silkworm as a metaphor to illustrate people who are hard working, while English-speakers don’t.For example:（1）Rain cats and dogs: it originates from Nordic mythology，in which dog symbolize wind.（2）狗咬吕洞宾：it originates from Chinese myth.英语11002班 胡 畔 1010291061 3.2.Religious Influence

Ancient Chinese believed in Buddhism, and most of the modern Chinese have no religious belief.However, most of the English people believe in Christianity.There are many religious stories that involve animals in both Taoism and Christianity.That’s why same animal referent may have quite different senses.For example: The dog return to his vomit(狗又呕吐了，比喻重犯旧日的罪行)

3.3.Geographical Environment Influence

语言与文化英文论文 篇2

关键词：广告,广告语言,文化差异,中国文化,西方文化

Ⅰ、Introduction

Today, with the development of the technology and the diversity of the mass media, advertising has influenced us pervasively in our daily life.

No countries and nations are without their cultures.Since culture is what people do, or“the total life ways of a people, the social legacy the individual acquires from his group”. (O’Guinn1998:137) .The advertisement is a kind of manifestation of culture, it’s under the influence and restrict of local culture while national culture influences and restricts the development and expression of advertising language which is the core content of advertisement.The aim of the paper is to lay out three aspects to illustrate cultural difference in China and Western countries in advertisement.

Ⅱ、Collectivism vs.Individualism

It believed that advertisements that follow the value and belief of people are to be more persuasive.In Chinese ads, Collectivism is a term used to describe any moral, political, or social outlook that stresses human interdependence and the importance of a collective, rather than the importance of separate individuals.Collectivists focus on community and society, and seek to give priority to group goals over individual goals (wikipedia) .The traditional Chinese culture was of an ethical nature and it can be called“morality-worshipping”culture.

This concept is often reflected in advertising language.For example:

走中国道路, 乘一汽奥迪 (一汽)

喝孔府宴酒, 做天下文章 (孔府宴酒)

咱老百姓的好药 (葵花药业)

情系中国结, 联通四海心 (中国联通)

以产业报国、以民族昌盛为己任 (长虹)

海尔, 中国造 (海尔)

孔府家酒, 叫人想家 (孔府家酒)

每喝一杯农夫山泉, 就为中国奥运捐出一分钱 (农夫山泉)

中国平安, 平安中国 (平安保险)

From above, we can see that Chinese strive to achieve unity and compatibility.But this character is radically opposed by westerns who advocate individualism.Individualism refers to a doctrine advocating freedom from government regulation in the pursuit of a person's economic goals (wikipedia) .This doctrine holds that the interests of the individual should take precedence over the interests of the state or social group.This is due to their history different from the Chinese.So they prefer to be unique individual.This concept can also be found in these ads:

Just do it. (Nike)

The only thing like Coca-cola is Coca-cola itself. (Coca-cola)

"Doing what we do best", and later"Something special in the air". (American Airlines)

Obey your thirst. (Sprite)

We lead.Others copy. (Ricoh)

"I'm lovin'it!" (McDonalds)

"The Power to Be Your Best. (Apple)

From the above, we can see that the westerns often regard uniqueness and difference as the best quality of products.They pay attention to diversity and changes of material, emphasis specially on the change and difference of the nature and stress personal freedom self-development and personal enterprise.Compared with Chinese ads, they don’t focus on“society”and“authority”because it takes for granted that individuals know best and the public authority or society has he right to interfere in the person's decision-making process only when a very compelling need to do so arises.

Ⅲ、Past Orientation vs.Future Orientation

The Chinese culture has formed the richest cultural accumulation in the world.Since Chinese cultural has a long history, in the advertisements, esp.in the alcohol advertisements, the emphasis on history is important for customers to accept this product.From the following examples, we can see that:

品味的历史, 430年:国窖1573 (泸州老窖)

千古佳酿, 万代留香, 中华酒宗, 汝阳杜康 (杜康酒中华酒宗系列)

往事越千年, 陈酿白云边 (白云边酒)

回味唐朝 (剑南春)

传奇品质, 百年张裕 (张裕)

The word“old”usually prefer to stress the point that their companies and their products are traditional ones, such as“百年老店” (a shop with a history of a hundred years) , “老字号” (ageold brand) , “老招牌” (age-old shop sign) , “历史悠久” (with a long history) and“祖传秘方” (a secret recipe handed down from generation togeneration) (Shi, 2007) .

The Western countries insisted the short term oriented culture;the main reason is that their history is shorter than China.They don’t do the business like Chinese who often use the factors of history and tradition, but use the strong and direct marketing strategy (hard sale) , a product of the“immediate results”as a selling point.

“True success, ”the young people explained, “is not a matter of money or position.It’s a matter of self-fulfillment.And selffulfillment of reaching one’s goals and achieving happiness in one’s own way without paying attention to rules, duties, or the opinions of others.”This history has cultivated the future-oriented culture, which is different from the Chinese.We can also see that from the following examples:

The choice of a new generation. (Pepsi)

To me, the past black and white, but the future is always color. (Hennessy)

The future's bright-the future's orange (Orange)

Instead of soap, try a whole new way to wash your face.New pond’s leaves your skin feeling soft and smooth.Try it and see (Pond’s)

Ⅳ、Conservativeness vs.Openness in Sex

Chinese are more traditional than Western people.Talking abou sex is controversial because sex has long been a taboo subject in China.Once a report in China Daily Let’s do it, not taking revealed that the Chinese have sex much more often than the global average but are still too shy to talk about it with their partners.

Sexually suggestive ads are banned in China.In daily life Chinese people are not accustomed to express their ideas directly but to use the euphemism, tortuous way to express.Han nationality affected by Confucian ideas is modest, introverted and conservative This is unlike European and American national export and lively personality.In France, for example, a perfume advertisement:“The one drop is to the beauty, two drop is for the lover, three drop is enough to lead to one love affair.” (Zhu, 1999:28) .French people think that this expression is very romantic and attractive, but Chinese consumers think it hard to accept this extreme expression.For the following ads of condoms, most Chinese people will find hard to accept it:

Better Shape, Better Sex.

Good news for your sex life, bad news for beds. (Durex)

There's life after sex. (ad against AIDS)

Ⅴ、Conclusion

Culture has a significant influence on advertising.Successful advertisements will be produced on the basis of local culture and advertising culture.As long as we pay attention to the cultural difference between China and western countries, we can draw our customer’s attention, activate their interest, stimulate their desire, strengthen their memory and induce action finally.

参考文献

【1】Leech, Geofrey N.English in Advertising[M].London:Longman, 1996.

【2】李悦娥、范宏雅.话语分析[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社, 2002.

【3】朱春梅, 从中英文广告看东西方文化差异[J].考试周刊, 2007 (39) .

【4】朱华, 产品广告与民族文化[J].江南大学学报 (人文社会科学版) , 1996 (4) .

【5】WWW.Wikiepedia.com

中英文文学及文化的比较与翻译 篇3

【关键词】中英文文学 文化 比较 翻译

一、中英文文学作品对比分析

文学是社会的镜子，中英文文学作品是不同社会制度下的文化产物。中英文文学作品的不同之处在文学思想、个人性格、文学描写等方面都有所体现，不一而足。在此，笔者不一一赘述，仅以自然描写、宗教信仰和作品实践为例，来讲述两者的差异。

1.自然描写。关于自然、自然景色的描写，在许多中国文学作品中都极为常见。借助外部环境和自然背景来表达创作者的意图，反映主人公的内心，实现自然、社会、人物三者的和谐统一，是许多作家在文学创作中的惯用的手法，如沈从文就是一个善于描写自然静物的高手，在其作品《边城》中，茶峒小镇的景物都具有诗意的色彩。在玛格丽特·米切尔的《飘》中，时常可见大段的关于自然景物的描写。利用自然环境衬托人物和故事，是文学创作的共性，在这一方面，中英文文学作品都不例外。不同的是，一些自然要素在使用和意义上有着明显的差异，如在中国文学作品中，“东风”经常用来暗喻温暖的春天即将来临、事情即将出现转机等，但是在西方文学中，东风象征着保守与凶兆。在中国文学尤其是古典文学中，月亮常用来象征美丽、团圆和光辉，残月多具有象征意义，而在西方文学中，月亮象征着生育与肥沃，残月常用来象征寡妇与老年妇人。在中英文文学翻译中，译者要明确自然事物所指及差异，以免出现常识性的错误。

2.宗教信仰比较。中国是一个多民族的宗教信仰自由的国家，在中国，佛教、道教、伊斯兰教等教派共同存在。但是，在中国，宗教信仰自由并不代表宗教精神可以随意扩张和拔高，这是我国宗教信仰的特色。以英语为母语的国家信仰的多是基督教，在这些国家，基督教对民众的影响非常大，这一点，从文学作品中可以管窥一二。如在《飘》中，斯嘉丽一家在饭前通常都要祷告，斯嘉丽的母亲和媚兰都被塑造成了圣母的形象。可以说，在这些国家，宗教的精神是无限扩张的。因此，在英文文学作品中，凡是符合宗教规定、客观规律的行为通常都会被视为正当的。但是在中文文学中，宗教的地位一点都不特殊，如在宣扬“佛法无边”的《西游记》中，虽然佛教的势力最强，但是孙悟空却屡次挑战佛教权威，如来佛祖的两名贴身弟子还曾向唐生要人事，宗教的形象并不高大。译者在文学翻译中，在涉及到宗教信仰方面的内容时，要正确认识民众对宗教的情感和态度，力求做到严肃、严谨。

3.作品实践对比分析。实践是社会进步的基础，在中英文文学作品中，民众、个体的实践行为随处可见，通过实践翻译社会发展规律和社会现实，是文学创作的通用手法。不同的是，在实践方法、思想方面，中英文文学作品有所不同。英文文学作品强调实践表现手法的浪漫性，但是具体的实践和实践者却是辛苦而不浪漫的，如基督山伯爵、鲁滨逊，虽然主人公的经历称得上是极具戏剧性，但是每个人在实践中也都是饱尝苦头。中国文学中强调实践的真实性、客观性，他们对实践参与事物的态度非常尊重，如人们常用生活中最常见的马、牛比喻人，将人比喻成才华横溢的“千里马”和勤劳奉献的“孺子牛”。但是在西方文学中，马通常就是用来载人载物的，牛就是用来吃肉饮奶的。

二、中英文化比较

文化是特定社会环境中发展实践的产物，中英地域差异决定了中英文化必然会存在诸多不同。下面，笔者就从生活习惯、认知、价值观等方面来阐述中英文化之间的差异。

1.文化生活习惯。民族生活理念、生活习惯会给民众文化生活习惯带来直接影响，如在基督教宗教文化影响下，英国视圣诞节为最重要的节日，会在圣诞这一天热烈庆祝，亲朋之间还会互送礼物，《麦琪的礼物》就是一个发生在圣诞期间的感人故事。而有着腊祭习俗的中国人则沿用农历历法，以新年为一年的开始。再则，在生活习惯上，中国人以群居生活为主，家庭观念浓厚，许多家庭都以四世同堂为荣。英国人个人意识强烈，家庭不过是成长过程中的一个驿站，在他们看来，过好自己才是最重要的。在心理习惯上，中国人喜爱热闹，尤其是在节日之际，人们习惯用大红的灯笼、中国结、窗花来装饰门庭，西方人喜欢独处，普通人找个幽静的地方度假就跟梭罗独居瓦尔登湖一样，追求的是心灵的宁静。

2.文化认知。关于事物和学问，中国人与英国人的态度是不同的，中国人更加关注事物、学问的工具性、实用性，他们习惯将对事物、所学到的知识运用到实践中去。以儒家家国思想和法家治国理念为例，中国许多政治家如商鞅、张居正等都研究过这些治国策略，并乐于将自己认为合理的部分应用到实践中去。英国人在对事物的认知上，更加关注事物本身的内在逻辑，如果逻辑明了，对错并不重要。在中英文文学中，中国人在认知方面大都是由表及里、沿着正向思维方向前进的，而英国人更善于从结论找原因、用逆向思维思考问题。如在创作《德伯家的苔丝》时，哈德坚信，人的痛苦是不可避免的，人在现实社会中的生存，本身就是悲哀的。所以，他笔下的苔丝姑娘虽然单纯美丽，但是终究难以摆脱命运的捉弄。

3.价值判断比较。价值判断是个体认知的产物，中英文化在机制判断上存在着明显差异，中国文化向来以集体主义价值观为标准，强调人对社会、对团队的价值和奉献，提倡通过团队努力来解决问题。如在《林海雪原》中，杨子荣虽然神勇无比，机智超群，但是还是要依靠集体的力量攻下威虎山。在英国文化中，人们比较尊重和推崇个人主义思想、个人主义英雄和超级英雄，他们喜爱的是贝奥武甫、鲁滨逊、007式的人物。

三、中英文文学作品翻译要义

1.深刻领会作者思想意图。无论是中国文学还是英文文学，都是作者创作实践的结果，作者的创作意图决定了作品的思想主旨，其创作意图也会在作品中有所体现。文学作品的逻辑性，作者创作意图的指向性，要求译者在文学作品翻译中要深入了解作者的创作意图，全面把握作品的整体思路、中心思想，在翻译中做到译文原意与译意的贴切、统一。此外，根据中英文化差异，笔者还在采用归化法、简译、增译法等对文章进行适当删减或添加，力求在保证文化通顺、完整的基础上，使作品内容看起来更加连贯。如在翻译英国浪漫主义诗人雪莱的《Ode to the West Wind》时，我们可根据诗人的情感，将诗歌的标题译做“东风颂”，目的是将内容与情感融合到一起，增强译文的思想性、准确性。

nlc202309010537

2.参考作品的文化背景。语言和文学作品都会依托一定的文化背景而存在，在中英文文学作品翻译中，我们也常常会发现，语言与文化、文化与社会的关系极其密切，文化常会受特定社会背景的影响和制约。这就要求译者在文学作品翻译中，要深入了解文学作品的创作背景、社会文化背景，熟悉译语国家的文化传统、风土人情等，将译文内容与文化背景有机结合起来，认真思考和权衡原文和译文各要素，选择合适的词汇、文字来表达作者的意图，使译文在向目的语读者传递消息的同时又带有原作的特点，以实现跨文化交流的目的。如在《社会与孤独》中有这样一句话：It's wise for man in every instance of his labour， to hitch his wagon to a star， and see his chores done by the gods themselves.艾默生这句话的原意是“只要借助星星的力量，任何事都能办到”。在翻译时，我们可以根据上下文需要将之译为“只要借助自然的力量”或“只要胸怀大志”就可无坚不摧、战无不胜。

3.根据具体语境来翻译。翻译是一项跨文化的文字创作活动，目的语读者和源语读者在思维、想法和语言表达方面的差异，会加大文学作品翻译的难度。译者在全面照顾译文内容的情况下，还要立足于特定的语境，适当考虑目的语读者的需要，根据语境合理选择文字进行意义表述，以使语义更加完整，同时为读者阅读理解提供方便。如在中文文学作品中常常会出现主谓宾缺失的情况，如莫言的作品，常常会因为频繁断句、用词简洁而显得句子残缺不全。英文在语法上要求相对严格，句子成分也显的相对完整。所以在翻译中英文文学作品时，译者可以根据语境增加或删减某些词语，或根据目的语读者的表达习惯灵活进行词语替换，使语义看起来更加自然、简洁、完整。

综上所述，跨文化交际是中外文化交流的产物，中英文文学及文学翻译则是跨文化交际的重要手段。文化具有时代性、地域性等特点，国与国、地区与地区之间的文化差异是客观存在的。这就要求翻译工作者在文学翻译中正视中外文化的差异，正确理解文学语言所负载的文化蕴意，以翻译出更多好作品。

参考文献：

[1]熊志霞.中英文学作品及其文化的比较与翻译[J].校园英语， 2015，20：229-230.

[2]胡细辉.中英文学交流中的文化问题探讨[J].名作欣赏，2012， 06：151-152.

[3]茅和华.翻译中的中西文化差异比较[J].沙洲职业工学院学报，2006，04：23-25.

英文辞职报告常用语言/ 篇4

辞职信一般用正面积极的语言，以下为常用句，英文辞职报告常用语言/ 范文。

State you are resigning your specific position/title and the effective date.As we have discussed, I am offering my resignation as systems analyst, level 1.I want to make the resignation effective date as convenient for you as possible, but no later than March 1.please consider this letter as my resignation from my position as office manager, effective March 1.I will be leaving my position as general counsel on August 31.After six long months of contemplation on my future advancement in HHH, I have decided to resign my geologist position, effective sometime in October–at your convenience.The decision has been quite difficult for me because I truly have enjoyed the relationships I’ve built here.I offer my resignation as training coordinator with HHH.My last day will be March 1, unless you have a replacement who can assume the responsibilities sooner.State your reason for leaving.You may be as vague or as specific as you wish.Bear in mind, however, your reason should be one that puts you in a favorable light with future employers who may verify your employment record.This new position will offer me the opportunity to travel overseas, an adventure I’ve looked forward to for sometime now.I have been concerned about the limited opportunities for advancement.As you know, Ive always been one to thrive on change and growth.I have decided to seek a job that will allow me more freedom to use my problem-solving skills on non-routine matters.As you know, my training is in the financial area, and I’ve had limited opportunities here to make contributions of that kind.My experience with previous employers has been administrative work, and that is the kind of job to which I’d like to return.As we have discussed, because of changes in my personal financial responsibilities, I have had to seek a position that offered a higher salary–although I understand your budgetary constraints.I really havent decided completely what kind of job I want to pursue, although I am interested in the possibility of going into business for myself.At this point, I’m toying with the idea of turning one of my hobbies into a profit-making enterprise.I plan to move back to the Midwest to be near my elderly parents, who have had serious health problems the last year.Because of the increase in the size of my family and the rapidly increasing cost of living, Ive found it necessary to seek other employment.Rush-hour traffic and my two-hour daily commute have become a growing frustration for me, and, therefore, I have located a position nearer my home that will allow me more time with my family.Frankly, I was deeply disappointed the vacancy of general manager was filled by someone from outside the company.Through years of excellent performance appraisals, I was led to believe I was in line for that position.Under the circumstances, I think youll understand my decision to resign.I have accepted a position with HHH as their director of marketing.Mention anyone you’ve trained to replace you, if appropriate, and any unfinished projects in progress.I’ve trained Cheryl Anderson in all my daily job duties.I have every confidence Cheryl Anderson can handle my job.I would have no qualms in leaving my job in the capable hands of Cheryl Anderson, at least until youve made a thorough search outside the organization.Cheryl Anderson is fully capable of assuming my position, should you decide to promote from within the organization.pending projects include the Jefferson case and the Blythe will.Unfinished projects that will need your attention include…;Cheryl Anderson is familiar with all the details of these on-going efforts.Express your affection for the job, citing either experience, training, skill development, or relationships with customers or coworkers.The friendships I’ve developed here will be difficult to leave.I appreciate your supervision and your genuine concern for my well-being and professional growth.The training I’ve been given here has indeed prepared me well for this new assignment.Your personal management style has allowed me just the flexibility I’ve needed in a job.Your confidence in me through the years is one of the things I have valued most during my tenure here.please understand how much I have enjoyed working with you under such pleasant circumstances.I thank you for your constant attention to my needs, both personal and professional.The communication skills you’ve practiced here are some that I plan to continue in my new position.The close personal friendships, as well as the professional liaisons, have been a meaningful part of my work life here.Ive learned much from you.I feel that I owe my success in getting this new job to your personal contributions to my professional growth.Thank you for such a pleasant association over the past ten years.I have fond memories of you and the others on the staff.I’ve appreciated all my dealings with NNN.Thank you for the personal and professional growth I’ve enjoyed here at NNN.The job here has been richly rewarding.My training has been exceptional, my relationships deeply meaningful,and my work very rewarding.Thank you for the opportunities here.

浅析中西语言与文化差异 篇5

浅析中西语言与文化差异

语言是人类表达思想、传递感情的工具,不同的语言反映了不同的文化.文化的`差异会导致交流误解和沟通障碍.本文从思S方式和语言热萘礁龇矫娣治隽酥形魑幕的差异,井强调了在英语学习过程申,了解巨汉语言文化差异的重要性.

作 者：许之所 冯亮 作者单位：武汉理工大学,湖北武汉,430079刊 名：湖北经济学院学报英文刊名：JOURNAL OF HUBEI UNIVERSITY OF ECONOMICS年，卷(期)：20085(5)分类号：H3关键词：语言 文化 差异

语言与文化英文论文 篇6

1.1 The Socio-cognitive Approach of Teun A.Van Dijk:

Dijk has long been a leading theorist who takes discourse analysis as a interdisciplinary approach to the analysis of texts in social context.His framework aims to integrate the production and interpretation of discourse as well as its textual analysis.Dijk argues that socioal structures and discourse structures cannot be related directly, then there would be no need for ideology.He posits a framework in which social structures can only be related to discourse structures through social actors and their minds:mental models mediate between ideology and discourse.Hence, his theory has three main components:social functions, cognitive structures discursive expression and reproduction, which bridge the gap between macro and micro levels of analysis.Discourse-Cognition-Society schema has become the characteristic of Dijk’s model.

1.2 Discourse-historical Approach

the most salient feature of the discourse-historical approach is its endeavor to work with different approaches and on the basis of a variety o empirical data as well as background information.the main characteristics of this approach can be summarized as follows:a) The approach is interdisciplinary (Disciplines like:sociology, history, psychology etc.work at the same time) .b) The approach aims at the social problem, not focusing on the specific linguistic items.c) The background and context should be studied, since discourse can only be understood within the specific context.d) The historical context is always analyzed and integrated into the interpretation of discourse and texts.Wodak assumes that discourse analysis always involves power and ideologies.She carries out researches in various institutional settings and on a variety of social issues such as sexism, racism, and her theory is focusing on the historical contexts o discourse in the process of explanation and interpretation.

1.3 Fairclough’s Three-dimensional Model

Of all the methodologies employed by CDA practitioner, the most extensively drawn-upon one comes from Norman Fairclough (1989, 1995) .To better grasp the theory of this model, it is essential to take a close look at his concept of discourse.

The proposal of three-dimensional model is based upon Fairclough's application of the concept of discourse in three different ways.

1) In the most abstract sense, discourse refers to language use as social practice.

2) Ddiscourse is understood as the kind of language used within a specific field, such as political or scientific discourse.

3) In the most concrete usage, discourse is used as a count noun referring to a way of speaking which gives meaning to experiences from a particular perspective.

In the last sense, the concept refers to any discourse that can be distinguished from other discourses such as a feminist discourse, a Marxist discourse, a consumer discourse, or an environmentalist discourse (Fairclough, 1995a) .

2. The Research Methodologies of Cognitive Linguistics

Cognitive linguistics is closely related with biological outcomes.since the brain's neural networks, many of the details of cognitive processes are unable to know, its research only starts from observing the variety of linguistic phenomena, from analyzing corpus, and reach a conclusion upon these.There are several important theoretical methods:Firmo’s Frame Semantics, Lange Ke's Cognitive Grammar, Lykov and others Cognitive Semantics Construction Grammar by Phil Mo, Lykov, Kay, and Aokangnaoer (O'Connor) , Fauconnier's mental space theory.namely, Cognitive Linguistics in driven by corpus analysis get the abstract structure system from a specific corpus and the analysis of the phenomenon of language driven by corpus, is a inductive process.Driven by theory, it analyzes the corresponding relationship among semantic structure, grammatical structure and voice structure, test theoretical frameworks and brings out the specific details of relationship nets from the framework.

3. Conclusion

From the discussed above, we can find that cognitive linguistics and CDA are interested in backstage cognition revealed by linguistic forms, which is one critical factor in deciding discourse meaning.CDA often elect the actual language (usually the discourse rather than sentences) as a specific criticized object.Besides experiential values of contents, know ledges and beliefs, two explanatory dimension were added in CDA.The two dimensions include some chief characteristics like formality, modality etc., which are seldom mentioned in cognitive linguistics.Cognitive linguistics itself is a framework of linguistic analysis.Specifically speaking cognitive linguistics can provide a new framework for political discourses.The concepts of cognitive linguistics also provide a toolbox that is used to identify and analyze.

参考文献

[1]FAIRCLOUGH, N.Critical Discourse Analysis:The Critical Study of Language[M].London:Longman, 1995.

[2]CLARK, R&IVANIC, R.Raising critical awareness of language[J].Language Awareness.1999 (2) .

[3]陈中竺.批评语言学评述[J].外语教学与研究, 1995 (1) .

[4]辛斌.批评语言学与英语新闻语篇的批评性分析[J].外语教学, 2000 (4) .

文化与语言的联姻 篇7

关键词：文化学语言学功能语言分析

意大利的人文主义学者维柯，早些年在我国的影响仅限于是历史哲学的创始人。随着近些年研究的深入，他多方面的具有独创性的成就日益显现出来，其中，他独辟蹊径地运用语言学的方法来剖析各种古代的文明制度，达到对人类远古时期历史演进的真相的认识，这种方法具有重要的价值。

一、维柯语言学的产生缘由

维柯瞄上语言，源于他及同时代学者的学术困境，就是远古时代的各种文明制度、远古时代人类的心理、思维、习俗等到底怎样，由于时间的推移，似乎今天的人们无从得知。学者们用了各种办法，结果总是无法达到对未开化时期人类各种制度的起源及本性的真理性认识。他们往往凭臆测去推断，如格劳秀斯、霍布斯、李维、格罗特等，也包括维柯平生最敬仰的三位精神导师：柏拉图、塔西佗、培根。结果在他们的著作中犯了许多年代误植的错误，把今天哲学家们的玄奥智慧加诸原始人类，认为在他们的语言文字中，在他们的神话故事中，在他们的宗教中等藏有哲学家的神秘玄奥智慧，使得今天的人类对远古人类的认识错上加错。因而，这些哲学家们的学问是不科学的，用今天的话来说就是片面的、孤立的、静止的，他们割裂了历史，从事物的中途开始，既不知道它们的过去，也就无法预测它们的将来。

作为一个修辞学教授，维柯自然而然地把目光投了“语言学”（philological，又可译为语文学）。 维柯语言学批评法是如何产生的呢？由于维柯的思想太富有创造性，很多东西完全是原创性的，几乎辨别不出与时代的联系，一是归因于维柯的生活环境 ，他偏居一隅于意大利的那不勒斯，阿尔卑斯山阻断了他与外界的联系；另一方面，外界也没有关注维柯，维柯的学说生前没有受到人关注，没有产生什么影响，死后也如此，直到19世纪维柯才得到广泛的承认与重视。不过现代的研究维柯的学者发现，维柯的学说并不是像他自己所说的那样处在荒漠之中，而是与当时的学术思想有千丝万缕的联系。维柯语文学批评方法就与当时两大相互分裂的历史——地理传统有密切的关系，并且在基础上最终成形的。

维柯的语言学具有重要的方法论意义。关于这种方法，维柯有很精辟的阐述：“哲学家们如果不去请教语言学家们的凭证，就不能使他们的推理具有确凿可凭性，他们的工作就有一半是失败的；同理，语言学家们如果不去请教于哲学家们的推理，就不能使他们的凭证得到真理的批准，他们的工作也就有一半失败了。如果双方都向对方请教，他们对他们的政体就会更有益，而且也就会比我们更早一步构思出这门《新科学》了。”[1]维柯在那个时候就用了我们今天所运用的史与论相结合，理性与感性相结合的治学方法。当时英国哲学家崇尚经验，大陆理性主义者独推理性，两者对峙，判若鸿沟。维柯是超越了他们的。

二、维柯语言学产生的历程及丰富内涵

对语言学方法的发现运用，源于维柯早年对意大利古老的智慧的追寻。他早年就写了《论意大利的古老智慧——从拉丁语源而来》一书，从副标题中可以看出他的这种努力。在完成本书后，有学者提出过一些质疑，在他的第二次答复中，他说出了他的真正想法：“当我面对着如此众多的充满着深邃智慧的拉丁语词汇，而且由于上面所讨论的原因，这些语汇的作者并非希腊人之时，我相信一条崭新而可靠的道路展现在我的面前了，通过这条道路，沉浸于这些语言的源头中去，我们就能寻求到意大利的最古老的智慧”。[2]这里，我们可以明确地看到，语言学作为一种工具，一座沟通与古人对话的桥梁，已经初步架构起来了。

不过，那时他对语言的考察范围还很小，仅局限在拉丁语汇上。到《新科学》写作的时候，才真正得以成熟。除了上述一些理由外，维柯大大地扩展了内涵，范围，功能。他不仅从词源学角度关注了拉丁语汇，希腊语汇，法国语汇，甚至各种土俗语汇也在他的考察范围之内。例如他提到但丁的伟大，特别提到了当时塔斯康语。他不仅考察词语，还要考察格言、谚语或风俗智慧中的公理。他特别看重其中一些各种神话故事、村俗传说、英雄语句，等等；不仅考察有声的语言成形的文字也考察原初人类的哑语各种象形文字。維柯有一种雄心，这种雄心即使在今天看来也会令语言学家们望尘莫及，他要编写一部由各民族语言构成的全人类的“心头词典”利用这种心头词典来讨论人类文化起源方面的一切有关问题，现象上看，世界上出现过无数多的民族，有无数种语言，但在维柯看来，“起源于互不相识的各民族之间的一致的观念，必有一个共同的真理基础”，未开化人走向文明人的历史征途中，骨子里都有一些一致性——共同意识，尽管有些细节上的差异。凭这种心头词典就可以构思出一种理想的永恒的历史，来判定一切民族的有时间性的历史。这正是《新科学》自始至终要经常进行的工作之一。

三、语言学的文化功能

维柯的语言学具有非常丰富而深刻的的思想，除了上述内容之外，维柯对语言学的重视，还在于他对语言学功能的创造性挖掘，他认为渺茫难稽的远古时代的民政历史当代人无法知晓，我们中国人对古代历史文明的了解，主要是通过古代文物的发掘考察这条途径，维柯也考虑过这条途径，甚至在某种程度上还相当重视，“古代文物的重大的零星片段，前此对科学都没有用处，因为它们已弄得污秽了，破烂了，七零八落了，可是如果加以清洗、拼凑和复原，它们就会在科学里放出奇光异彩。”[3]

在《新科学》中有两个重要的地方就运用了古代文物的证据，一个是古罗马的十二铜版法，一个是古埃及遗留下来的文物，维柯维柯《新科学》前者解决了自然法的问题，后者使维柯推断出古代历史的三个分期以及相对应的三种语言。但文物毕竟是死的，是不全面的，文物的意义要重新考证阐释，难免又会陷入学者与民族的虚骄讹见当中去。而维柯创作《新科学》的一个主要目的就是要揭穿这种虚骄讹见。是语言学的证据而不是文物考古方面的证据成了《新科学》的重中之重，这是维柯理性选择的结果。维柯迷恋上语言学，是因为维柯确信它能够带给了他所要的东西。他青睐民俗传说与神话，是因为“凡是民俗传说都必然有公众信仰的基础；由于有这种基础，传说才产生出来，而且由整个民族在长时期中流传下来。”维柯《新科学》的一个重要任务便是把掩盖在神话传说中的事实真相重新挖掘，这些真相由于岁月的变迁，语言习俗的变化，反被一些虚伪的传说遮掩起来了。《新科学》中有很多这样的实例。例如通过对古希腊亚波罗神、狄安娜神、赫库勒斯、天后朱诺、维纳斯等诸神的分析，挖掘出了许多历史的真相。在希腊神话中，天后朱诺被后世的文弱诗人塑造成一个妒忌性很强的女人，她的行为的目的只是针对一位邪淫的天帝。至于天后被悬在空中，一根绳子捆着颈项，另一根绳子捆着双手，两块大石捆在脚上，这个形象则被理解为邪淫的天帝所加给她的凶残的惩罚。这一类凭腐化的习俗去解释的神话故事，一直使后来的神话学家们大伤脑筋。实际上，天后的这个形象，是人类早期有关婚姻的神圣

性的庄严表达，天后悬在空中指隆重婚礼所必有的神的征兆；用绳子捆着颈项和双手，意在追忆最初巨人们拖妇女作妻子的暴行，到后来在所有的民族中都改用了较文明象征，即结婚戒指；天后脚上那块沉重的石头，就指婚姻的稳重性，类似于我们中国人所说的白头偕老之意。[4]

他专注于民俗语言，这是因为他认为“民俗语言应是最重大的见证，使我们可以认识到语言正在形成时期各民族的古代习俗究竟任何。”他钟情于他的祖国的语言和意大利的一些土语，这是因为“一个古代民族的语言如果在它的发展期自始至终都保持住统治地位，它就会是一个重大的见证，使我们可以认识到世界早期的习俗。”[5]结果如何呢？维柯成功了，正是沿着这条崭新而可靠的道路，维柯达到了他的理性的巅峰，成就了人类思想史上的一代思想家。

参考文献：

[1]维柯新科学第142页，商务印书馆，1997年版

[2]维柯论意大利最古老的智慧——从拉丁语源发掘而来第115页，张小勇译，上海三联出版社2006年版