中西方文化对比独立（精选8篇）
全球化时代的中西文化及其传播
一、全球化问题的两种认识
在全球化问题上始终存在两种主要认识和态度。
一是把全球化看作人类历史一个晚近的发展时期和一种普适的进化过程，在政治上表现为民族国家及其职能的消弱和相互间依赖的加强；经济层面上表现为跨国公司与跨国金融的大规模运行从而使资源在全球范围得到优化配置，在文化层面表现为信息传播的空前活跃以及以消费主义为核心的生活方式的盛行；
另一种认识与态度是批判性的，把全球化看成是西方文明的新一轮全球扩张，即资本主义新一轮全球扩张导致世界性的不平衡与不平等格局的加剧，其中所体现的不过是资本永无止境的欲望。
二、关于“文化帝国主义”的两种观点
1.萨义德与汤林森关于文化帝国主义的争论
“文化帝国主义”是一个众说纷纭的概念。汤林森认为, 当前的“文化帝国主义”理论主要涉及四个层面的内容: 作为“媒介帝国主义”的话语、作为“民族国家”的话语、作为批判全球资本主义的话语和作为批判现代性的话语。我们借用汤林森给出的这一框架介绍汤林森和萨伊德两位学者关于这个问题的针锋相对的争论。
（1）作为“媒介帝国主义”的话语
大多讨论文化帝国主义的学者都认为, 帝国主义依靠大众传媒传播、推行自己的意识形态和文化观念。
汤林森：媒介和文化帝国主义之间并没有必然的内在关联: 一方面, 媒介只是中性地、客观地传播信息, 并不存在将帝国主义的意识形态强加于第三世界的问题;另一方面, 读者和观众有足够的自主性来抵抗外来文化的渗透。
萨义德：在媒介和帝国主义的关系问题关键在于帝国主义国家和第三世界国家对现代媒介是否拥有同样的控制权, 以及帝国主义国家是否有意识、有预谋地利用媒介来传播自己的意识形态。而在这一点上, 萨义德认为, 文化帝国主义的存在是一个不争的事实。
(2)作为“民族国家”的话语
就文化帝国主义作为一种“民族国家”的话语而言, 它指涉的主要是这样一种观点: 由于经济、政治、军事实力的不均衡, 第三世界的“民族文化”过去曾经受到、而且现在仍在受着帝国主义文化的威胁。
汤林森认为所谓的“文化威胁”论并不存在。在他看来, “民族文化”本身就是一个值得怀疑的概念, 包括联合国教科文组织的解释都充满了矛盾。事实上, 大多数民族国家根本就没有同质的文化实体, 相反, 其内部充满了不同的氏族(ethnic)文化或地域(regional)文化的抗争与冲突。因此, 汤林森非常赞同当代学者安德森的看法, 认为民族国家与文化其实是“想象出来的共同体”(Imagined Community), 其本质乃是一种心理现象: 一种寻求互相认同的情感。
从某种意义上说, 萨义德同意汤林森的“文化开放论”与“文化交融论”。因此, 他诚挚地呼吁文化上的“国际主义”。萨义德也注意到, 不管是殖民时代, 还是冷战结束以来, 他所期望的文化之间的平等交往从来就没有实现过, 原因在于帝国主义国家一直以一种居高临下的姿态来俯视东方, 东方从来就没有获得过和西方平等的对话身份。因而萨义德号召第三世界抵制西方世界的扩张。其目的并不是以“西方主义”来对抗“东方主义”, 而是改变前宗主国与殖民地、主流与边缘之间的不平等关系。
（3）、作为批判全球资本主义的话语
汤林森主要反驳了一种功能论的说法：即认为文化帝国主义是资本主义的先锋, 其目的是通过文化层面的“同质化”, 进而在全球范围内推行资本主义的经济体系。在他看来, 上述理论的错误首先在于颠倒了文化与经济的关系: 是经济决定文化而不是相反, 只有在人类需要得到充分满足、物质基础得到建立后才有“文化”可言, 从这个意义上说, 文化不可能是经济的先锋。其次, 如果是文化社群自觉、自主地选择了资本主义, 那么即使资本主义的确带来了文化同质化的后果, 那么也没有理由对资本主义进行批评。
萨义德：汤林森强调的是资本主义的自主性, 萨义德却正好相反。他认为，资本主义在全球的扩张, 从一开始就是以文化的扩张为条件的。萨义德主要考察了欧美“东方学”的产生与帝国主义扩张之间的内在关系。欧洲的东方学研究一直与欧洲诸国此消彼长的斗争有关。萨义德还注意到, 在整个殖民时代, 西方世界许多“高尚”的文化现象都打上了帝国主义的印记，有时这些印记是暗藏着的。所以他强调“对位阅读法”： 即不局限于作品的表层含义, 而去挖掘文本背后的深层含义。
（4）、作为批判现代性的话语
文化帝国主义作为批判现代性的话语：主要指的是这样一种观点: 现代性一方面给社会带来了物质财富、科学理性和民主自由, 另一方面带来了异化、无序以及工具理性的“铁笼”。正是这样，现代性在冷战以后以一种不可抵御的力量迅速地向全球扩张, 以致于第三世界不得不接受“现代性的诅咒”: 不但在经济上要纳入资本主义的经济体系, 在文化上也要纳入源自西方的叙事模式。
汤林森：现代性在全球的扩张虽然是个不争的事实, 却不能证明文化帝国主义的存在。他指出, 20世纪60年代以来, 帝国主义已经被“全球化”所取代。
萨义德：在当前的世界秩序中, 东西方之间、南北方之间的冲突仍然触目惊心, 因而全球化、人类一体化的预测要么是某些理论家粉饰现实的违心之论, 要么是善良知识分子的痴人说梦。
（5）、两种看法的渊源
两人采取的方法差异：汤林森主要采用的是解释学的方法。萨义德采用葛兰西的“文化霸权”理论和福柯的“权力话语”理论。正是萨义德和汤林森的差异所在: 汤林森以解释学为理据, 更多地强调文化交往中的平等关系, 而萨义德受葛兰西和福柯理论的影响, 更多地关注文化交往中帝国主义霸权的隐秘运作方式。
两人的本体论差异: 回答“谁在说话?”的问题时两人的立场不同。葛兰西是接受西方教育的东方人，汤林森是发达国家代言人；二者分属不同的知识分子类型。
三、支持文化帝国主义存在的辩护
1、文化帝国主义的实践之一——好莱坞影像中的“东方主义”思维
何谓“东方主义”
后殖民主义理论的重要组成部分。代表人物爱德华•萨义德在《东方学》一书中对之作过明确界定:东方主义“不是表达了对一个与自己显然不同的(或新异的、替代性的)世界进行理解——在某些情况下是控制、操纵甚至吞并——的愿望或意图”。它“与帝国主义强力有着特殊的历史关联”。萨义德指出“: 东方主义”是“建立在关于‘东方’与‘西方’的本体论与认识论区分基础上的一种思维方式”。凡是以东方与西方这一基本二分法作为起点的对东方、东方人、东方习俗、东方“心性”、东方命运等等进行本质主义陈述的写作都属于东方主义。
西方电影关于功夫、伦理、侠客、中医、玄学、暴力美学等正是“东方主义”的典型表现。
好莱坞电影中的“东方主义”
（3）．全球化语境下好莱坞电影的“东方主义”新动向
西方国家以美国文化产业为首，通过商业文化输出，把西方的价值观、世界观推销到世界各个角落，逐渐形成文化霸权。
在“全球化”时代，“东方主义”的政治功能丝毫没有减弱。自从穆斯林世界被贴上美国头号敌人的标签之后，“阿拉伯”就与“恐怖主义”联系到了一起。
华人好莱坞电影的“自我东方化”的色彩。“自我东方化”即东方人以西方人论述东方的逻辑为参照和出发点，固化和本质化“东方主义”的行为和话语表达。一大批有影响力的华人电影可以说明这种趋势。“自我东方化”已经成为东方导演把影片推向国际市场的有力武器。“沉默的他者”不再沉默，转向迎合而不是挑战或推翻西方人固有的想法。
（2）典型的东方人
将东方典型化有两个用处:一是方便西方对东方的把握；二是这种典型其实蕴涵着丰富的含义，那就是对东方的敌意。负面的东方形象传达了西方对东方的看法与态度。固定秩序“白人男性-白人女性-黑人男性-黑人女性”强调缺失，强调秩序，这些都是将东方人典型化的惯用手段。西方需要这些典型来强调他们的中心位置，将东方边缘化，并且使他们将东方的一切活动合理化。
3、新时代的东方主义
《明日帝国》
促使电影对东方形象作出修正的原因，第一，在欧美社会中面临着数量越来越大的非白人移民，他们的反对声音不容忽视。其次就是票房表现。电影中负面的东方形象令日渐清醒的东方观众反感，电影制作者在考虑利润的前提下，不得不推出貌似正面的他者形象，更标榜在他者形象上前所未有的真实塑造。
007电影一向以其敏感的时代触觉见称。在《明日帝国》中，它带出了潮流元素:媒体的力量。同时，在电影中，我们也可以看到中国的崛起，因为在电影中，在中国成立办事处是媒体大亨卡佛的目标。在电影中可以看到两股力量的交织:一是要维护东西方的差距，二是对中国发展的担心。进一步考量，由于中国的庞大票房，电影不得不对林慧这个角色有一番斟酌。观众看到的林慧，正是一个折衷的东方人物形象。
“所有的对于东方社会，语言，文学，历史，社会学等等的看法我都称之为显性东方主义。任何关于东方的知识的改变都仅限于显性东方主义的改变，隐性东方主义是不变的，稳定的，永恒的”。
四、反对文化帝国主义存在的辩护
1、不开放不足以成文化——关于全球化中媒体保护与媒体开放政策
（1）限制性保护与扶植性保护
限制性保护：对文化产品的引入和展示进行控制；通过限制进口对国内产业进行鼓励和扶持的策略；关税和限额是限制性保护的常见形式；
扶植性保护：意在推动国内文化产业的发展，增强同国外竞争的实力。通过资助和补贴推动国内文化产业的发展。
（2）媒体保护主义的根源
媒体保护主义以文化产品具有意识形态为前提，来自对外国文化的影响和本国文化完整性受损的恐惧；保护性政策常常与决策者的既得利益有关，政府精英除了实践他们自己的信念之外，也必须归纳国家内部不同群体的利益，甚至充当他们的代言人；不平衡的文化交流容易引发媒体保护，对美国的文化霸权的担心不限于发展中国家，某些发达地区例如加拿大和西欧，也采取了若干媒体保护主义。
是一种精英主义文化观：认为大众对文化难有正确的判断。典型：中国，加拿大，西欧
文化帝国主义是其代表理论，与强媒体效果模式相对应
（3）媒体开放政策的根源
自由贸易政策是对市场机制在全球范围内资源分配有效性信念的一种体现。
赞成自由贸易的观点认为：文化产品的国际流通和普通产品流通无异，并对个人自行选择文化有更多的信心和尊重。典型：韩国，日本，香港
自由贸易政策对外国媒体的冲击有更加客观的评价；
本地产品的竞争优势在于斯特劳哈尔的文化接近性，即受众对和他们自己的语言和文化背景熟悉的文化产品更容易被理解和产生共鸣。
文化开放主义倾向于强调受众的主动性
（4）全球化时代的媒体政策
全球化给保护主义带来极大问题，保护主义的政策越来越失效，付出的成本越来越高。信息技术的发展、互联网的扩张、技术进步以及民主制度和市场经济在全球范围内的胜利加速全球化的过程。
全球化与本地化过程是相辅相成的。
外国文化会丰富本国文化。
（5）媒体开放政策的成功实践——一个极端开放的案例
媒体保护主义的一个重要假设，是采纳开放政策纵容外来文化会引发本土文化的激烈变革，香港足以证明这种恐惧是没有根据的。
媒体保护主义的另一个假设认为，开放的文化政策会导致外国媒体一统天下。香港的案例表明保护主义对发展中国家的本地媒体发展不是必要的。
媒体保护主义假定决策者可以从文化中去其糟粕取其精华，但是如何分辨精华和糟粕并不容易。因为本土文化内部是有差异的，与外国文化接轨有时只不过是内部文化多元化的延伸。因此判断是否应该接受一个文化习惯，不该以其来源为标准，而是应该考虑这种习惯是否符合民众的需要，大陆和香港形成了鲜明的对照。
香港、广州和北京的价值观比较
价值观与文化习惯
香港
广州
北京
赞同％
赞同％
赞同％
如果有机会我会走后门
21.2
50.4
47.5
拜访好友不需要预约
19.4
28.6
26.7
邻居吵架时不应该干涉
46.1
38.3
40.9
我肯定不会送自己父母去养老院
51.2
58.9
50.0
（6）以竞争促发展
全球化传播时代，本土文化与外来文化的各种边界正在发生变化，被外来文化取缔的恐惧是没有根据的，国家的本土文化可能发生变化，但是很难改变深层的特征，因为人的文化认同和所处的地缘、血缘和信仰息息相关，本地文化不一定此消彼涨，可能相互影响并形成新的混合文化。
全球化时代各种政策依然掌握在国家政治精英的手中，全球化对国家民族的侵蚀作用是不平衡的，文化主权的概念依然会有市场；
采取一般的开放政策是在一定的时间内并不要求纯粹依赖市场引导文化发展。在满足社会对外来媒体需求和减少其不良影响之间求取平衡，采取有限保护政策，尽量开放是全球化下的主要走向，一个好的战略是分步骤、分阶段的开放市场，首先开放本土竞争为国际竞争做好准备
2、文化转移——对全球文化交流实际过程的分析
——以花木兰传说的迪斯尼化和美国化为例
（1）文化的全球化与文化转移
文化的全球化：文化的全球化意味着一种全球文化的诞生。有两种不同的观点，一种观点认为全球文化就是被西方文化统治的文化，本土文化有被同化的危险，文化全球化实际上就是本土文化的西方化；另一种观点认为，全球化无疑代表着一种重要的趋势，但是全球化并不能脱离本土化，全球化与本土化是都是相对的，是同一个硬币的两面，Robertson提出“球土化（globcalization）”的概念，这个概念可以很好的概括和体现个中两者的相对性和辩证关系。
文化转移：指由媒介参与的文化生产形式，主要指不同文化相遇时，一个文化为了自己的需要而改造其他文化、据为己用的过程。文化转移的主角既可以是强势文化，也可以是弱势文化。文化转移通常有其目的性，通常获得利润是进行文化转移的原始动力，文化转移会导致两个或多个文化元素融合，在融合过程中，各种文化成分的相对比重可能不同，由于人们在语言和文化情境中更容易接受本土文化，为了得到受众的认可，文化生产者趋向于在外国文化和本土文化中寻找一种平衡。
（3）、木兰传说的迪斯尼化和美国化
（4）木兰传说的美国化和普适化
孝道与双向的爱。花木兰在中国文化中是表扬孝道的传说，到了《木兰》中，“服从”的美德不受重视，孝道的观念变为次要，孝道被改造成一个更容易被不同文化接受的观念：荣耀家庭和双向的爱取代了孝道成为影片叙述的主题之一。
适度的女权主义与个人主义。自我身份的追寻是影片的一个突出主题。走折中路线，表达适度的女性主义与个人主义。
去情境化、本质化与再情境化。第一种，剔除中国故事的情境，确定核心要素，加以重构和重新情境化；另外一种，确定核心要素后按照故事令人信服的内在逻辑去重新演绎。
文化形式的转变。原文化存在的形式会影响文化转移的方式和幅度；文化成品采用的形式也会影响到改编的范围；媒介的风格和类型也会对文化转移产生重要影响。在文化转移的过程中，哪些被保留，哪些被舍弃，哪些被翻新，取决于文化产品的艺术形式、媒介类型以及制作者的意向等多方面的相互作用。
原文化延续与跨文化参考机制
（5）全球化
3、关于文化转移的结语
文化的真实性与本土性：
文化杂交与全球文化：《木兰》既不是纯中国的文化，也不是纯美国的文化，它成为一个跨文化的文本：是旧与新、传统与现代、东方与西方、集体主义与个人主义、女性的服从与解放、孝道的奉献与父女双向沟通等等看似对立的概念的混合体。它在世界范围内的成功使得这一个迪斯尼化的中国传奇成为了世界流行文化中的一员，它使得后来对花木兰故事的再诠释和再创作都无法回避与它的对话，全球文化与本土文化的界限逐渐模糊。
文化转移与文化边界的跨越：文化转移不是两个不同文化的物理混合，而是一个化学反应的过程，反应之后的整体大于部分之和。在文化转移的过程中，制作者总是尝试不断重新定义文化的边界，直到最后定于一个受众和他们自己都可以接受的新的边界。文化边界是社会构建的结果，全球传播的时代由于不同文化之间的联系日益紧密，文化边界也日益模糊并不断被改写，常常处于不稳定的状态。虽然一个国家的文化随着文化转移而改变，但是它的文化基因仍然将保持相对稳定。文化的边界不会在一夜之间消失，只是将不断受到冲击、改写以至再肯定。
关键词：称谓词,职务称谓词,职业称谓词,通用称谓词,亲属称谓词
称谓指“对人的称呼。表示对不同对象的身份、地位、职业、关系等的名称”(巢峰,2005)。俗话说“礼多人不怪”,在人际交往中,恰如其分的称呼能够给对方留下好印象,拉近彼此距离,起到“会说话,好办事”的功效。然而,我们在日常生活中经常会遇到不知道如何称呼对方的尴尬事,即所谓的“称谓困境”(李树新,2004)。随着世界经济进一步全球化,国际交流日益增加。在中国人和西方人交往的过程中,不同的历史传统和文化背景可能会导致文化冲突。为了摆脱“称谓困境”,为了有效地减少和避免文化冲突,有必要对中西方文化中目前使用的称谓词进行对比研究。
研究假设是交际双方的权势、资历、年龄和亲疏关系会影响人们对称谓词的选择。研究通过访谈河南省宜阳县、美国辛辛那提市和英国伦敦市的当地政府、医院、企业、市场、学校、家庭,和观看快乐大本营、美国偶像、英国偶像等娱乐节目获取称谓词的相关信息。
1 研究成果
我们的研究成果包括以下八个方面。
1.1 政府机构称谓词
访谈的结果表明,各国的政府都是严肃的机构,政府工作人员使用的称谓词表现出明显的等级差距,说明了在政府机构中,权势在很大程度上决定了称谓词的选择。具体表现为,中国人用“姓+职务”称呼领导或资深同事,凸显了领导的地位和对资深同事的尊重。美国人和英国人除了称呼市长为“Mayor Mr.mayor”外,其他的上级统称为“Sir/Madam”,体现了明显的上下级关系。因为在西方文化中,“Sir/Madam”被下级用来称呼上级,晚辈称呼长辈,售货员称呼顾客,表现了很强的长幼、尊卑、等级观念。中国人根据与同事的亲疏关系,用“姓+职务”称呼同级别的同事,如果关系亲密直接叫名字,从一定程度上也反映了等级观念或是亲疏关系。美英两个国家普遍使用“Mr.Mrs./Miss”等通用称谓词称呼同级别同事。中国人称呼下级叫名字或“小+姓”,表示对晚辈的亲近和喜爱。英国人对下级直呼其名或叫“Mr./Mrs./Miss”,而美国人通常直呼其名,因为美国人喜欢叫对方名字表示亲昵。在我们采访的宜阳县政府,人们用“姓+秘书”称呼其他单位的陪同领导的职务不详的工作人员,“秘书”这一称谓具有极强的政府机构特征。
1.2 医院称谓词
我们采访了宜阳县人民医院、辛辛那提大学医疗中心和伦敦皇家医院的医生,发现资历在医务人员选择称谓词时起了主导作用,权势也多多少少影响了称谓词的选择。在中国医院和美国医院里,称呼领导都可以用“姓+职务/job title+last name”,表明了在这两个医院内部,存在着一定程度的上下级观念;然而,美国医院的员工还可以直呼领导名字,以示关系亲密或地位平等。值得一提的是,中国医院内部称年龄大、资历深的医生为老师,表示对他们的尊敬,同时将双方置于“师生”关系这一轻松、亲密的模式中,无形中拉近了彼此的距离,沟通了感情。英国医院里有一个非常特殊的现象—称呼取得英国皇家外科学院院士资格的资深外科医生“Mr.+last name(姓+师傅)”,而称呼普通的医生或资历尚浅的外科医生“Doctor+last name”,这与医学技术发达,业务熟练的外科医生备受推崇有关。在三个国家的医院里,同等级别都称呼名字,英国医院也用“Doctor+last name”称呼对方。用医生所从事的职业称呼对方,充分说明医生这个职业在英国属于上流社会的职业,拥有崇高的社会地位。在中国、美国和英国的医院里,都用对方的名字称呼下级或年龄小的同事,表示双方关系亲密或相当熟悉。与此同时,在中国、美国和英国的医院里,医生或者护士都用姓名称呼病人;中美两国门诊部和住院部的医务人员还会叫病人的挂号序号或床位号,这一现象充分体现了医务人员的职业特征。中国的医务人员还根据病人的年龄,尊称老人为“老先生/老太太”,称小婴儿为“宝贝”;而伦敦皇家医院的医务人员则根据病人的婚姻状况,使用通用称谓词“Mr.+last name/Mrs.+last name/Miss+last name”称呼病人。
1.3 企业称谓词
中西方称谓词的差异在企业方面尤为突出。中国企业的员工主要根据权势和资历选择称谓词;英国企业员工或多或少依据权势选择称谓词;而在美国的沃尔玛集团,对上级、同级或下级一律直呼其名,表明了在美国企业内部并没有明显的尊卑观念、等级意识,也从一定程度上体现了美国社会公民平等的思想。在英国企业内部,用敬称“Sir”称呼上级,充分体现了对上级的尊重。在洛阳北方易初摩托车有限公司,社会地位在称谓词中又得到充分体现。无论称呼上级、同级或下级,都可以用“姓+职务”,例如,“刘总经理/王经理/张科长”等。称呼资历深的同事或同级别的同事还可以用“姓+职称”,如,“李工(工程师的简称)/马技师”等;还可称呼资历深的同事为“李姐/郝师傅”等。对年龄小的同事还可以用“小+姓”或直呼其名,表示关系亲密。我们还发现大阳公司内部流行两个带有企业特征的称谓词“某工/某师傅”,充分说明在以技术革新为企业生命的现代企业里,技术过硬的师傅和技术骨干是倍受人尊重的。
1.4 市场称谓词
通过分析和比较三个国家市场内的称谓词,我们发现称谓词的选择多与顾客年龄相关。而且商家称呼顾客都非常客气、有礼貌,因为售货员和顾客关系疏远,为了销售商品,他们必须通过称谓词与顾客建立融洽的关系。而且,在英美两个国家的市场内,都有根据婚姻状况称呼顾客的习惯。在美国市场,售货员用“Sir/Madam”称呼陌生顾客,用通用称谓词“Mr./Mrs.+last name”或顾客的名字称呼熟悉的顾客。在英国市场,售货员称呼年龄大的已婚女顾客为“Mrs.+last name/Ms+last name/Madam”,称呼年龄大的已婚男顾客为“Mr.+last name/Sir”。对年轻女顾客的称呼非常亲昵,有“Miss/My love/Darling”;同时,无论男女顾客婚否,都可以用“Mr.+last name/Ms/Miss”。中国的商家根据自己以及顾客的年龄称呼对方。中年店主称年老顾客“老先生、老太太”,称年龄稍大的顾客“老哥、姐”,称年轻顾客“小伙、小姑娘”,称年幼顾客“小朋友”。青年店家称老年顾客“爷爷、奶奶”,称中年顾客“叔叔、阿姨”,称年幼的“小弟弟、小妹妹”。对同龄顾客,有时会叫“帅哥、美女”。通过对比分析,中国的商家非常擅长使用称谓词,用到昵称“老先生、小朋友”以及拟亲属称谓“爷爷、小弟弟”等,或称赞对方的称谓词“帅哥、美女”,使本来生疏的商家与顾客的关系拉近了许多,为交易成功做好了铺垫。
1.5 学校内部称谓词(教师)
中英两国老师选择称谓词都考虑到上下级关系,中国老师选择称谓词还考虑到年龄和双方的亲疏关系。英国和中国学校的老师都用“姓+职务/job title”来称呼领导。宜阳一高的老师用“姓+职务”称呼领导,如“王校长、李主任”等。伦敦商学院的老师可以叫领导名字或用“Mr.+last name/Ms+last name/Mrs.+last name”称呼领导。辛辛那提大学的老师直接喊领导名字,或用“Professor+last name”称呼领导。这从一个侧面说明了英美国家的等级观念比中国淡薄,也说明了在美国大学教授是倍受人尊重的职业。中国老师称呼同龄老师时直呼其名,称呼年龄较大的老师用“姓+老师”。称呼同龄老师时,美国和英国的老师直接叫名字,以示关系亲密平等。一般情况下,中国老师称呼下级或年龄小的同事全名,关系亲近的同事也会只叫名,不加姓。英美国家的老师通常叫同事的名字,表示友好亲密。
1.6 学校内部称谓词(学生)
中美两国学生都用职业称谓词称呼老师,而三个国家同学们之间的称呼多以亲疏关系为依据。在我们访谈的三个国家的学校里,学生称呼老师的方式很相似。中国学生用“老师、姓+老师、学科+老师”称呼老师,同学之间交流称班主任为“老班”。“老师”作为一个职业,转化为一个职业称谓,这表明教书育人是一项伟大的事业,教师行业是一个高尚的职业。美国大学生称老师“Professor/job title”,如,“Dean white/President Huston”等。在这三所学校,同学之间都直接叫名字。中国学生有时叫熟悉同学的外号、昵称或小名,不熟悉的叫名字或“同学、朋友、哥们儿”。美国的男同学也会用爱称“man/guys”称呼其他的男同学。中国学生有很多绰号,如“小胖、大脸猫、妖、领导、状元”,表现了某些同学的体态特征或是智力特征,也表达了同学们对他们的喜爱和期望。美国同学也有昵称,如“Jonathan—John;Amanda—Mandy”,叫起来简短明快,也拉近了彼此的距离。英国的学生往往会嘲笑偶尔反应迟钝的同学,戏称他们为“Pig”。
通过对比,我们发现三个学校的同学都发展了一定形式的独特的校园文化,同学们的可爱、机智、幽默也融入了称谓词中。
1.7 亲属称谓词
比较了三个国家家庭内部的称谓词,我们发现三个国家都依据家庭成员之间的辈分关系来确定称呼。中国式的家庭是一个长幼有序、称呼明细的家族体系。父系称谓词有“爷爷、奶奶、爸爸、妈妈、伯伯、伯母、叔叔、婶母、姑姑、姑父、哥哥、姐姐、弟弟、妹妹、侄子、侄女”等。母系称谓词有“外公、外婆、舅舅、舅妈、阿姨、姨父、外甥、外甥女”等。姑姑、舅舅、阿姨的子女统称为“表哥/弟、表姐/妹”等。晚辈对长辈不能直呼其名,否则会被看作是大逆不道。而英美国家则不同,他们并不区分父系与母系,比如,爷爷/外公(grandpa),奶奶/外婆(grandma),叔叔/姑父/姨夫(uncle),姑姑/阿姨/婶母(aunt),更不会区分堂兄/堂姐/堂弟/堂妹(cousin),侄子/外甥(nephew),侄女/外甥女(niece)等。英国和美国都有“Grandpa/Grandma;Mamma/Papa;Uncle/Uncle John/John;Aunt/Aunt Mary/Mary”等亲属称谓,与中国不同的是,英国和美国的晚辈可以喊长辈的名字,而在中国却是万万不能。在家里,中国父母往往会叫孩子小名。在非正式场合,英国夫妻之间、父母子女之间可以用爱称“Darling/Love/Sweetie/Sweet heart”表示亲昵;在正式场合,用不带姓的名字称呼对方。在非正式场合,美国夫妻之间、父母之间叫对方名字或“Honey”;在正式场合,非常正规地叫对方名字。
1.8 媒体称谓词
媒体称谓词的选择主要依据资历和年龄,英国和美国娱乐媒体使用的称谓词几乎不存在差别。在介绍评委或选手入场时,往往称呼其全名以表示隆重。在节目期间,往往只叫对方名字。在节目中,主持人会用到一些爱称来称呼选手,如英国偶像的主持人用“Charming/My friend/Boys/Girls”称呼参赛选手;美国偶像主持人用“Sweet heart/Sweetie/Man”等称呼参赛选手。中国娱乐节目中使用的称谓词表现出特定的中国文化。主持人尊称年长评委“老师”,年龄相仿的评委直接叫名字,用“姓+通用称谓词”称呼现场的陌生观众,如“王女士、赵大哥、刘小姐”等。比较了三国知名综艺节目主持人使用的称谓词,我们可以得出结论,主持人通过使用适当的称谓词,或是表达了对评委老师和明星的尊重,或是活跃了现场气氛,拉近了与观众的距离。
2 讨论
2.1 三个国家都存在固定的职务称谓词
英国和美国有“president、premier、mayor、dean、chairman、captain”,这表明在西方国家,部分单位存在尊卑意识和等级观念。在中国,几乎所有的职务都可以用作称谓词。同时,中国人用“张校长、赵局长”等正职称谓来称呼副职领导;然而,在英美国家,人们直接用副职称谓词称呼副职领导,例如:“Vice president/Associate Dean”。这一现象反映了汉民族崇尚社会地位的价值观念。职务称谓文化根源于制度文化,职务称谓现象体现了双方的权势和社会地位差异。
2.2 三个国家都拥有一定数量的职业称谓词
例如,英美国家的“Doctor/Professor”,中国的“老师、医生”,职业称谓词用作称谓,说明了在这三个国家,(大学)教师和医生都是拥有社会地位的职业。
3 结束语
本研究虽然是中西文化称谓词现状对比研究,但由于时间和精力有限,访谈的个体存在一定程度的局限性,收集到的亲属称谓词也只涉及父系和母系称谓词。因此,敬请各位专家和同行批评指正。
参考文献
[1]巢峰.辞海[M].上海:上海辞书出版社,2005.
关键词：中西方 广告文化 对比分析
随着广告行业的不断发展，中西方在广告领域的交流与合作也更加的深入和广泛。在不断的广告行业的互动过程当中，其在各自发展中的文化特色也在不断的凸显。因此，从中西广告文化的要素入手，探讨两者之间的内在区别，对于促进整体的广告行业文化的发展与进步具有重要的现实意义。
一.广告文化要素的内涵
在探讨中西方广告文化要素的差异之前，从广告学的理论出发，探讨广告文化要素的基本内涵是其重要的发展基础。从这个层面上来看，广告文化要素的内涵是广告内涵的延伸。在当前的学术领域，围绕广告文化要素的内涵的界定还没有达成比较普遍的共识。宏观层面的广告文化要素的内涵主要体现在以下几个层面。
首先，广告文化要素中的理念。在诸多的广告文化要素中，理念发挥着极为重要的作用。所谓的理念就是在进行广告创作的过程当中，所需要遵循的一个基本的思想准则。例如，当前，在广告制作的过程当中，倡导绿色广告的理念正在不断的突出。所以，广告文化理念的不同，其在具体的呈现方面也会存在着一定的差异。
其次，广告文化要素中的媒体。从广告表现的基本形式上来看，媒体是广告制作者进行相关的广告文化传播的主要介质。因此，从这个范围上来看，不同类型的媒体在广告表达中的作用也在不断的凸显。例如，在当前的信息网络社会，依托互联网的各种新型的媒体也在不断的将广告的编排与制作推向一个新的高潮。这一点随着广告在社会环境中所影响与覆盖的范围不断趋于广泛化，媒体的价值与意义也将会表现的更加淋漓极致。
最后，广告文化要素中的基本原则。原则与理念，从宏观的层面上来看，具有一定的相关性与相似性。但是，从理论的层面来看，广告文化要素在基本的原则方面的要求是对基本的理念层面的一种细化与延伸。一方面，在基本原则方面，国家会通过法律与法规的名义来进行清晰的界定。另一方面，在广告行业，也会存在着一些约定的规则与要求。这些都构成了整体的广告文化要素的基本原则。
总之，广告文化要素是一个比较庞大的体系。在其不断发展的过程中，其文化要素的具体内涵与内容也会存在不断与时俱进的发展特点。但是，无论其在内涵与外延层面的不断发展与延伸，在今后的广告事业的发展中，不断的在文化要素的层面进行价值与意义的挖掘与提升，将是其今后行业获得持续发展的题中应有之意。
二.中西方广告文化要素的对比分析
由于中西方所属的文化范畴不同，因此，其在广告文化要素层面也存在着比较大的差异。这种差异从具体的层面来看，是文化差异在广告行业的具体呈现。因此，本文在借鉴相关研究文献的基础上，从以下几个层面来探讨中西方广告文化要素所存在的差异。
首先，中西方广告文化要素中理念层面的差异。在上文中，已经简单分析了理念是一个重要的广告文化要素。在我国，广告虽然在具体的类型方面存在着比较大的差异。但是，从本质上来看，中国广告在制作与发行的过程当中，更加强调的是一种文化内涵的传递与表达，特别是在传统文化层面的表达。中国传统文化是在历史发展中不断沉淀的民族精神财富的总和。作为重要的精神财富，中国传统文化影响着中国广告的表现形式。其中在理念领域表现的尤为凸显。例如，中国广告在创作中就离不开情怀这种重要的文化载体，甚至在这种传统文化的影响下形成独具特色的中国广告。
其次，中西方广告文化要素中媒体层面的差异。广告创作是一个系统的过程，在这个过程当中各个环节与要素之间要相互配合从而形成一个统一体。因此，中西方广告文化要素创作中，在整体的媒体思路方面进行不断的优化进而提升其视觉呈现的效果。无论是通过哪一种文化内容的选择与载体的表现，其所传递的思想之美与设计之美是毋庸质疑的。其中最具有代表性的就是中西方广告文化要素之间的关系。有的主张完全西化，有的则主张将中西方的广告技巧进行结合。这种结合在某种程度上就促成了中西方广告文化要素的发生与发展。所以，从这个角度来进行分析，中西方广告文化要素在媒体层面从差异是中西广告创作相互交流与相互碰撞的产物。
中国是一个文明古国，在文化不断发展的过程中，衍生出了很多特有的文化。所以，在制作公益广告的过程中，可以借助传统的艺术体裁及形式来进行相关公益主题的表达。例如，在电视上，观众们会看到一则提倡社会主义和谐社会的公益广告。这则广告在宣传与表达方式上就很好地借助了中国民间的剪纸艺术。通过剪纸中的各种栩栩如生的人物形象，将这一公益主题进行了很好的宣传。另外，在山东卫视制作的一则公益广告中，就是通过当地观众比较熟悉的山东快书的方式来进行宣传。这些在具体的媒体层面的差异，在很大层面上来看是一种具体的文化载体的发展与表现。
最后，中西方广告文化要素在基本原则层面的差异。中西国家在不同的文化发展中，其在具体的原则及要素层面存在着一定的差异。这种差异在一定的层面上来看是地方广告理念及广告运营法则的具体要求。例如，在广告文化要素的基本原则方面，中国比较强调广告在制作的内容及表现方式层面的积极向上。一方面，国家相关的政府职能部门，会通过不定期抽样检查的方式，来核实广告的制作质量是否符合着相关的广告文化要求。另一方面，也会借助相关的监督机制来实现整体的广告质量的提升。所以，从这个层面上来看，中国广告在制作与传播过程中所要经历的外在束缚还是比较多的。因此，在今后的广告制作与发展中其所面临的提升空间还是比较大的。
西方国家在广告制作的过程中，其所遵循的基本的原则与理念相对来讲还是比较宽松的。所以，在广告的创意空间及广告制作的自由度等方面还是存在着一定的优势的。所以，中西广告在文化要素的制作中还存在着比较大的互补与提升之处。
三.中西方广告文化要素的对比分析的启示
首先，重视广告新媒体。在信息技术不断发展与进步的当下，政中西方广告的媒介、载体也正在悄然发生着变化。例如，传统的报纸、广播、电视、电影等正在以数字化媒介形式出现，这种新的技术支撑的媒体被称为“新媒体”，也被称作“第五媒体”。新媒体的出现对社会生活的诸多方面都产生了深远的影响，其中比较突出的影响是中西方广告环境的优化与提高提供了一个良好的技术环境。所以，对于任何媒体而言，生命力是其存在的一个基本条件，一个缺乏生命力的媒体是很难在时代的发展中保存下来。新媒体的生命力主要表现为两个方向，一个是新媒体的生命的长度，也就是说，在媒介不断发展的当下，新媒体这种媒介呈现方式能够维持多长时间。另一个是新媒体生命的高度，也就是在上文中所论述的新媒体的影响效力问题。从新媒体的发展现状来看，其所呈现出来的生命力是非常旺盛的。特别是，随着新媒体影响范围的不断扩展，其所具有的生命张力也将会更加的突出。因此，重视新媒体在今后的发展中其所扮演的角色将会更加凸显。
其次，做好广告制作的监管工作。广告制作需要借助系统的、完整的相关政策、法规来进行支持。但是，从目前，我国关于广告制作的法治建设来看，还存在着需要进一步提升的空间。目前关于广告制作通领域中的适用法律从整体上来看还是从广告制作的实际内容出发来沿用不同的法律，围绕广告制作方向的法律与法规还相对比较少。所以，在全面推进法制建设的今天，不断地从源头上来进行相关的制度的设立与完善是减少广告制作问题产生的一个重要的解决对策之一。一方面，在立法层面，要立足于不断发展的现实广告制作诉求，在法律条文的补充与修订等方面不断的进行强化。在这个过程中，让整个围绕广告制作问题的行为监管体系不断的处在一个与时俱进的动态过程。
最后，做好广告制作中的文化传承工作。在今后制作和传播广告的过程中，要重视对我国传统文化的继承与发扬。例如，在宣传中国传统文化的公益广告制作中，就可以借助传统的文化体裁来进行表达。例如，艺术是文化的重要承载方式，在众多的艺术类型中，绘画通过独特的艺术视角与表达手法对文化的内涵与主旨进行了不一样的阐释。在绘画领域中，山水画以其细腻的笔法，别具一格的特色拥有着非常重要的价值与地位。随着时代的进步和社会的发展，特别是很多山水画家对艺术的苦心孤诣和深刻研究，山水画创作迎来了崭新的发展机遇，也具有了一些内在的时代发展特征。这种内在的发展特征如果和公益广告的制作有机的结合在一起，其在表达效果层面的提升则是不言而喻的。这种结合一方面是基于时代发展的需要，另一方面也是公益广告不断地与时俱进的重要表现。在这种发展与演变的进程当中，传统的关于公益广告创作的诸多理念，依然在很大层面上具有重要的影响与指导价值。所以，面对今后的中国公益广告的发展思路，一个重要的研究方向是将其传统中的价值元素与结构实行很好的对接与吸收。只有立足在传统基础上的成长，公益广告在今后的发展才不会陷入无根基的困境之中。
中西广告文化要素的对比是其在今后的发展中所需要面对的一个突出问题。本文尝试从两者在文化理念、广告表达载体以及广告制作的基本原则等维度来对中西文化要素进行了对比分析，希望能促进中西广告文化朝向一个更加广阔的发展未来。
参考文献
[1]李清，程宇宁.中外公益广告的运作模式比较研究[J].广告大观（理论版）.2010（01）
[2]高万里.浅谈中西方文化对公益广告的影响[J].广东轻工职业技术学院学报.2010（01）
[3]国外公益广告社会化运作三大成功模式介绍[J].中国广告.2009（02）
and Western Food Culture
系（部）：外语系 专 业 班： 姓 名： 学 号： 指导教师： 2011年 5 月
I
The Differences Between Chinese
and Western Food Culture 中西方饮食文化对比
I
Abstract
With the development of the economic globalization, China and the western countries are connected with each other more tightly and frequently.As an important entry point for people to exchange, it becomes very important to explore the differences between Chinese and western food.It can not only help us have a better understanding of the different culture of China and the west, come across cultural barriers, but also can train people‟s adaptability of the communication in cross-cultural, effectively avoided the cultural misunderstanding when we have a communication.So analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is very important to understand the differences.Moreover, it is useful to guide our practice when communicating with foreign friends.But actually the differences between Chinese and western food have a lot to do with the social and culture development.Culture is a kind of lifestyle that gathered together in a long time in the social life.And the life style including the ways of thinking and behavior.Although it has the universal features, it is also has the fundamental characteristics of the blood and geographic relationship, based on the formation of the nation as a whole unit.Food culture, the same to the nation as a unit, when a nation formed a fixed diet habit, diet tips and diet ideas, then become a culture.It is connected with the different geographical and historical conditions of China and the west.After all different cultures reflect different lifestyles.This paper tries to have inquiries into the difference from five aspects.It specifically expresses at the difference between Chinese and Western food objects,the difference in diet concept, differences in dietary patterns, the different utensils and etiquette, and differences in diet attribution.And this paper discusses the main characteristics the differences between Chinese and western food culture and the reasons for the differences.After that the paper has given the table manners of American as a example, such as bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right;salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon;dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.General Behavior: Chew with your mouth closed.Do not talk at an excessively loud volume.Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table and so on.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very
I important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awareness-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.Key words: China and the west culture;difference;concept;comunication
II
摘 要
随着经济全球化进一步发展，中西方联系越来越频繁。作为打开中西方人民交流的重要切入点，探讨中西方饮食差异变的十分重要。其意义在于既能有助于深刻理解中西方文化中的不同之处，跨越文化交流障碍，又能培养人们在跨文化交际时的适应能力，有效地避免交际双方由于文化差异而产生的误会。因此，分析和研究中西方饮食文化的差异对中国的饮食文化而言具有很重要的意义。此外，它有助于指导我们的实践。但是不言而喻中西美食的差异与社会文化的发展密切相关。文化是人们在长期的社会生活中生活方式凝聚起来的总称，其中生活方式又包括思维方式和行为方式，虽然文化具有普遍性特征，但它最根本的特点是以血缘和地缘关系为基础，以名族为单位形成的整体。饮食文化，同样以名族为单位，当一个民族形成了固定的饮食习惯，饮食技巧和饮食观念后，便构成了一种文化。这也与中国和西方的不同地理和历史条件息息相关，毕竟不同的文化反映不同的生活方式。
本文将从以下五个方面来说明中西文化的差异，它具体体现在饮食观念的差异、饮食内容的差异、饮食方式的差异以及不同的餐桌礼仪等。而本文不仅探讨了中西方饮食文化上的差异，更简要分析了造成这一差异的原因。除此之外，本文还以美国的餐桌文化给出了一些例子，例如，面包盘是在主盘的左边，饮料在主盘的右边；沙拉叉、刀和汤匙要比主菜刀、叉、勺放的要远；甜点餐具上方放置或随主板送达。一般吃东西的时候嘴巴紧闭；不要在餐桌上咳嗽、打喷嚏或在餐桌上吹鼻子等或者过分大声说话。总之，分析和研究中西方饮食文化的差异对中国的饮食文化具有很重要的意义。它不仅在于了解这一事实本身，更重要的是用它来知道我们的实践活动，在提高认识的基础上，改善食品结构，革除餐饮弊端，提高餐饮质量，保证人们的生活需要，弘扬中华文化的餐饮文化。
关键词：中西方饮食文化；差异；观念；交流
III
Contents
1.Introduction--------------------1 2.The differences between Chinese and Western food culture--------------------------3 2.1 The difference between Chinese and Western food objects--------------------------4 2.2 The difference in diet concept----------------------------6 2.3.Differences in dietary patterns-----------------------------9 2.4 The different utensils and etiquette----------------------11 2.5 Differences in diet attribution-----------------------------13 3.Nature of the differences between Chinese and Western food-----------------------16 4.Conclusion--------------------17 Acknowledgements--------------19 References------------------------20
IV 1． Introduction
With the development of the economic globalization, China and the western countries are connected with each other more tightly and frequently.As an important entry point for people to exchange, food culture plays a very important role.The differences between Chinese and western food have a lot to do with the social and culture development.Culture is a kind of lifestyle that gathered together in a long time in the social life.And the life style including the ways of thinking and behavior.Although it has the universal features, it is also has the fundamental characteristics of the blood and geographic relationship, based on the formation of the nation as a whole unit.Food culture, the same to the nation as a unit, when a nation formed a fixed diet habit, diet tips and diet ideas, then become a culture.It is connected with the different geographical and historical conditions of China and the west.After all different cultures reflect different lifestyles.In fact, food culture refers to the diet and lifestyle formed under certain historical or social conditions as well as the ideology formed on the basis of the aforesaid.During the history development of different countries and ethnic groups, different behavior patterns and lifestyles formed because the natural conditions and social environments were different.That is what people often refer to as customs.From the point of view of social observation and cultural study, the food culture of an ethnic group can fully embody its mentality, interest, belief and historical development.So, food culture can be seen as the most typical cultural feature of this ethnic group.The development and changes of food culture often reflect the evolution and progress of the society.The differences between Chinese culture and Western culture brought about the difference between their respective food cultures.Under two under different cultural backgrounds, obvious differences exist between Chinese food culture and western food culture, including perception, feature and the methods and materials.Therefore, it becomes very important to explore the differences between Chinese and western food.It can not only help us have a better understanding of the different culture between China and the west and come across cultural barriers, but also can train people‟s adaptability of the communication in cross-cultural, effectively avoided the cultural misunderstanding when we have a communication.So analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is very important to understand the differences.Moreover, it is useful to guide our practice when communicating with foreign friends.This paper tries to have inquiries into the difference from five aspects.It specifically expresses at the difference between Chinese and Western food objects,the difference in diet concept, differences in dietary patterns, the different utensils and etiquette, and differences in diet attribution.And this paper discusses the main characteristics the differences between Chinese and western food culture and the reasons for the differences.After that the paper has given the table manners of American as a example, such as bread plates are to the left of the main plate, beverage glasses are to the right;salad fork, knife and soup spoon are further from the main plate than the main course knife, fork and spoon;dessert utensils are either placed above the main plate or served with dessert.General Behavior: Chew with your mouth closed.Do not talk at an excessively loud volume.Refrain from coughing, sneezing or blowing nose at the table and so on.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awareness-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.2.The differences between Chinese and Western food culture
Once there is a saying that “Food is eating well-deserved for human life”, so food is an indispensable condition for the survival and development of human beings.There are two desires in life: one is feasting them to survive;and the other is the lust of men and women, which can help the mankind to carry on the family line.Facing the two desires, China pays more attention to the former, while the west tends to the latter.Such phenomenon affects the cultural trend.Diet is actually the contents of our daily lives, but why we call it culture? That is because the diet has special status in Chinese culture, and it also has a great distinction between China and the west.As one of the world ancient nations, China‟s diet has a history almost as long as that of Chinese civilization.But in western countries, ancient thinkers devoted less attention to the food problem than the Chinese philosophers did, and there is even not aware of it to the “heaven” degree.With the opposite, they recognized and interpreted the world in the perspective of the lust or love of men and women more.Whether the awareness of original sin of Christianity, Adam and Eve legend, or ancient Greek philosophy(such as Plato‟s dialogue)who considered the personal relationships “love” as the love of ontology of beauty, and regarded it as a reality thinking of philosophy, all these ideas become the basis of western philosophers‟ cultural thoughts.All these had potential effects on the development of western culture and westerners‟ characters.Receiving the influence of respective cultural tradition, the Chinese and western dietary culture has had different characteristics.The differences in concepts, targets, patterns, attribution and nature had reflected the different dietary culture in the different state characteristic;such characteristic has enriched the research value of dietary culture.Studying these cultural differences, we can find out a joint enhancing the communication between China and the west through a comprehensive study of the subject.It may be a great help to the communication of the Chinese and western cultures.The dining product as a result of factor and so on region characteristic, climatic environment, manners and customs influences, will appear in raw material, the taste, the cooking method, the food habit varying degree difference.Was precisely because of these differences, the dining product had the intense localization.Between China and the West culture‟s difference has accomplished China and the West diet culture difference, but this kind of difference and gets along with people the philosophy from the West different thinking mode.The Chinese pays great attention “the beauty to unite”, the westerner pays great attention “humanist”.2.1The difference between Chinese and Western food objects
All diet cannot be done without vegetables.The word “dish” is for the sound in China, and it always has something to do with the plants.According to a survey of western plants scholar, there are 600 varieties of vegetables, six times more than in the west.In fact, the Chinese dishes, vegetable dish is usual food.Meat dish entered the normal diet only on holidays or higher living standards, so since ancient times, and there was a saying of “fresh vegetables”.“Common people eat fresh vegetables, fish only offered in the worship.” It is said that fresh vegetables are mainly to the civilian in general, only being able to eat meat only in worship.Vegetarian diet takes the dominant position in the normal structure.Chinese people consider the vegetables as the main dish;it has inextricably linked with the advocacy of Buddhists.They deem animals as “people” and plants have “no soul.” So, they advocate vegetarianism.Westerners do not seem to have such a good habit.They uphold a cultural origin of nomadic, seafaring nation.Living mainly by fishing and hunting, collection and planting are just the complement.There are more meat dishes in their lives.Feeding, clothing, and using are taken from the animals, and even Western medicine is derived from animals.When the westerners introduce the diet characteristics of their countries, they always feel that their diet is more reasonable on the mix of nutrition than China.The food industry is more developed, such as cans, fast food, although the taste is monotonous, but it saves time, and it also has good nutrition.Therefore, in their countries: people are generally healthier and taller than Chinese, and the people have strong shoulders and developed muscles;but Chinese people look short, their shoulders narrow and legs thin, their skin yellow and their body weak.The differences between Chinese and western food for Westerners to judge the merits of the two diet is not justified.Mr.Sun Yat-sen had profound study of the culture of food and incisive exposition.In his composing The Scheme for National Reconstruction, detailing the differences between Chinese and Western diet phenomenon, he concludes: “Chinese ordinary people drink green tea, and eat simple food such as vegetables and tofu for meal.Such kinds of food are the most healthy and beneficial according to the research of hygienist.Therefore, the remote people in china, whose diet are far from meat and wine, always live a long life.Also China has a big population, and Chinese people have enormous power to resist disease, but they never try the non-diet.“He added:” The Chinese vegetarians all eat tofu.Tofu is expected as the real meat in plants, as it has the nutrition that meat has.It is the meat without toxic materials.So the Chinese are vegetarian used to be a custom without the promotion of scholars.It is also a custom that the European and American drink thick Wine, eat meat and fish.So there was science promotion before and a severe law later, such as the United States Prohibition.And the transfer will not carry out in a short time.“Mr.Sun‟s words tell out the scientific benefits of Chinese diet and disadvantages of Western diet.According to the characteristics of the significant differences between Chinese and Western diet targets, the Chinese character is called the plant character, while the Westerners‟ is animal character.In response to the cultural behaviors, Westerners love adventure, exploration, conflict;but the Chinese people only like to live banally.According to American expert on folklore Ruth‟s opinions on the “cultural pattern” theory, Chinese culture is quite similar to the classical world Apollo-type character and Westerners‟ is similar to the modern world Faust-type.Indeed, the Westerners such as Americans in the development of the west, they put the whole family on the truck, and go out of the city in amid rumbling with the supplies.The Chinese people are always thinking about “home” and “roots”, despite the promotion that young people should take the world as home.But after a few decades, the overseas Chinese will come back to the mainland with crutch to seek their roots.This concept of return and such human spirit that can only be said to cooperate with the accumulation in the diet.Then it brings cohesiveness to the Chinese nation and then makes the human folk full of energy.Westerners think the food can make them feel full.therefore, eats large piece of meat;and Chinese cuisine is the “Taste” of it.Therefore, China is also showing great cooking in the random selected materials: many Westerners as something thrown away, are excellent raw materials in China, foreign chefs can not handle things the hands of a chef in China to can be miraculous.Demonstration of Chinese food in the materials used for the extensive arbitrary.West China is more than reasonable with emphasis on nutrition, there are more developed in the food industry, such as canned food, fast food, etc., although the taste is monotonous, but to save time, and good nutrition.Therefore, the body of their country than the Chinese people generally robust: tall, long legs, broad shoulders, muscular.The westerner thought that the cooked food is appeases hunger, therefore eats the bulk meat, the entire block chicken specially and so on “the hard vegetable”.But China‟s cooked food is “eats the taste”, therefore China cooks on the needed materials also appears the enormous capriciousness: Many westerners regard as abandons the things, in China is the extremely good raw material, the foreign chef is unable the thing which processes, as soon as arrives in the Chinese chef hand, may melt mysteriously decayed.Indicates the Chinese diet in needed materials aspectvastness capriciousness.Today people in the UK eat a more varied diet than ever before.As well as the regional diets of England, Scotland, Wales, and Northern Ireland the many immigrant communities have introduced their cuisines to the previously unadventurous Britons: Chinese, Greek, Indian, Italian, Thai, American fast foods such as pizza, hamburgers and fried chicken have to some extent displaced the traditional fast food of fish and chips.Because of the climate and the Germanic origins of many of its early people, the UK has been a traditionally beer drinking rather than a wine drinking country.Nevertheless, in recent years, vineyards in the south of England have proved successful.In the west of England the traditional drink is cider, rather than beer.Over Britain as a whole, however, the traditional drink is tea.2.2 The difference in diet concept
The differences between Chinese and western diet cannot be ignored.Nobody will deny that the Western diet is a rational concept, regardless of the color of food, incense, flavor and shape, but nutrition must be assured.It cares about the intake of calories, vitamins, protein and so on during a day.Comparing with the Chinese diet, western diet tastes stereotyped, as simple as chewing the candle, but the sense tells them: We must eat them all because of the nutrition.And then they put it bluntly, just like refueling machine.The concept of western diet is compatible with the whole western philosophy.Metaphysics is the main feature of western philosophy.Such kind of philosophy brings vitality to western culture, so the natural sciences, psychology and methodology achieve a rapid development.In some other aspects, such philosophy proposition is a significantly obstacle, such as the dietary culture, which is the inevitable thing to drop behind, and just the metaphysics of methodology marks everywhere.In celebration, it stresses tableware, stresses the staple, stresses the servings, and stresses the color and shape mix of raw materials.But no matter how luxurious the grade is;from Los Angeles to New York, only one taste of steak, it is no art to speak of.And as dishes, the chicken is chicken;steak is steak, even in groups, which are also conducted in a shallow dish.In a dish of “French Muttonchops”, one side is potato mud, and muttonchops sits next to it, another side is allocation of cooking beans, and plus a few tablets of tomato.Color is on clear, but the tastes of the various materials are separated, not to reconcile, and the entire flavor is also simple and clear.Chinese diet is a sense of beauty diet.When people sample dishes, they often say this dish is “delicious”, and that dish is “not delicious”.But if you ask what is meant by “delicious”, why “tasty” and what are the aspects of “delicious”, I am afraid that it will be difficult to answer.This shows that which Chinese people hanker on a diet is just the “mood” that is difficult for one to say anything.Even using the “color, flavor, shape and implement “which people often said to make the” realm “reification, I am afraid it is still difficult to crown all.The beauty pursuit of Chinese cuisine is clearly overriding the rational pursuit.This concept of diet is also coinciding with the traditional Chinese philosophy.Chinese philosophy as a representative of oriental philosophy, its distinguishing features is the macro, visual, vague and evasive.Chinese cooking method is to reconcile, and the ultimate goal is to reconcile out of a beautiful taste.The main stress is measure and the overall co-ordination.It contains a wealth of dialectics of Chinese philosophy, and all these depend on the degree of the wonderful flavor and harmony of dish.The ever-changing within degrees decides the changeable of Chinese food, and it also decides the characteristics of Chinese food as well as the characteristics on each of the chefs.Chinese pay great attention to “the taste” of the food, while the Westerns has a kind of rational diet idea.No matter food color, smell and tastes, shape how, but the nutrition needs certainly to obtain the guarantee, is fastidious about one day to absorb how many quantity of heat, Vitamin, protein and so on.Even if the taste is stereotyped, must certainly eat, because has the nutrition.This diet idea is adapts with the Western entire philosophy system.Metaphysics is the Western philosophy main feature.The western philosophy studies the object principle of for the thing, principle of the thing often is the metaphysics principle, the metaphysics principle links up mutually, in constipation forming philosophy.This philosophy the culture brings the vitality for the West, caused it in the natural sciences, the psychology, the methodology to realize the development which progressed by leaps and bounds.But in another some aspects, this philosophy advocated that the big earth played the hindrance role, like diet culture.At the banquet, may be fastidious about the tableware, is fastidious about the needed materials, is fastidious about the service, is fastidious about raw material of the vegetable shape, color aspect matching;But no matter how luxurious upscale, from Los Angeles to New York, the beefsteak only then one kind of flavor, does not have art to be possible to say.As the cooked food, the chicken is the chicken, the beefsteak is a beefsteak, even if has matching, that is also carries on the plate, “the Buddhist ritual procedures mutton chop”, puts the mashed potatoes at the same time, side relies on the mutton chop, in addition matches at the same time boils the green beans, adds several piece of tomato then to become.In the color contrasts distinctively, but each raw material is mutually irrelevant in the taste, is well distributed, each is each taste, simple perspicuity.The Chinese is takes seriously “to eat” very much, “the food is what matters to the people” this proverb showed that we eat look equally and the day are important.Because our nationality for several thousand years are in the low productive forces level, the people always cannot eat to the full, therefore only will then have one kind uniquely to eat can regard in all diet culture, I thought that this will be probably stems from one kind of survival to need.If one culture eats regards as the most important matter, will then present two kind of phenomena: On the one hand will eat this kind the function will display the acme, not only maintenance survival, also will use its health maintenance, this will also be” uses medicines to build up one‟s health was inferior the food will make up”cultural base;On the other hand, to eats excessive takes seriously, will cause the human to esteem to the delicacy the pursue.In China‟s cookery, achieves the acme nearly to the delicacy pursue, down to makes a living the Chinese to the overseas, take the restaurant as industry, has become us the basis which settles down and gets on with life in the world!It is a pity, when we take the pursue delicacy the first request, we have actually neglected food most basic nutritional value, our many traditional food must pass through overheated fries in oil boils with the long time soft fire dumpling, causes the cooked food the nutrient content to receive the destruction, many nutrient contents lost in the processing process.Therefore as soon as speaks of the nutrition question, in fact touched the Chinese diet culture biggest weakness.The folk has a slang: “the food is what matters to the people, the food take the taste as first”.Is this kind to the delicacy the pursue, poured causes us to neglect the real sense which ate meal.The Chinese when tastes the cooked food, often will say that this TV dinner “delicious”, that vegetable “is not delicious”;However if further asked that anything calls “delicious”, why “delicious”, “delicious” in where, was not perhaps easy to talk clearly.This indicated that what Chinese to diet pursue is one kind explains “the ideal condition” with difficulty, even if is usually called “the color, smell and tastes with the people, the shape,” to come this kind “the boundary” the concrete application, perhaps was still very difficult to cover.the reason that the China diet has its unique charm, the key lies in its taste.But the delicacy production, lies in well distributed, must make food this taste, heats up the later ripe taste, in addition the ingredient and the supplementary material taste as well as the seasoning compromise the taste, interweaves the fusion coordinated in the same place, causes it to supplement mutually, the cooperation seepage, is in perfect harmony, in you have me, in me has you.The Chinese cooking is fastidious compromises the beauty, is the Chinese cooking art concise place.A vegetable shape and the color are the external things, but the taste is actually the intrinsic thing, heavy intrinsic, but decorates the semblance not desirably, but the heavy cooked food‟s taste exposes the cooked food not excessively the shape and the color, this is precisely the Chinese US diet view most important performance.In China, the diet beautiful pursue has crushed the rationality obviously, this kind of diet view and the Chinese tradition‟s philosophic thinking also tallies.As Eastern philosophy representative‟s Chinese philosophy, its outstanding feature is macroscopic, direct-viewing, is fuzzy and is evasive.The Chinese dish manufacture method is the well distributed large ding, is finally must compromise one happy taste.This is fastidious is a discretion, is the overall coordination.It has contained the Chinese philosophy rich diagnostic method thought that all take the vegetable taste happy, harmonized ever changing as, within had decided Chinese dish enriching and was rich in the change, has decided the Chinese dish vegetable department‟s characteristic and even each chef‟s characteristic.2.3 Differences in dietary patterns The Chinese and Western dietary patterns can be very different, and these differences affect the national character.In China, a celebration, no matter what, there will be only one form, as sitting together, sharing one feast.Banquet uses round table, which has created a unity of form, which is courtesy, comity atmosphere.Cate are in the center of the table.It is the objects for people to appreciate and taste, and it is also an intermediate of communication.People toast each other and share the vegetables, which reflect the mutual respect between people in the face of the good things, also show the virtues of comity.Although from the health point of view, this approach has obvious deficiencies, but it is in our national “happy” mentality, it reflects the classical Chinese philosophy area of “and” impact for future generations.It is helpful to facilitate the collective emotional exchanges and consequently difficult to reform.The western-style banquets, although the food and wine are very important, but in fact they are just foil.The core of Banquet is friendship, by the conversation with the guests who sitting next to achieve the purpose of recreation.If making an analogous compare between the recreation of the banquets and dancing, it may be said that the Chinese banquet is like group dance, and the western banquet is like men and women dancing.This shows that communication purpose of Chinese banquet and western banquet are very obvious.Only the Chinese banquet is more popular in the communion, but western banquet shows guests reflected in the friendship between neighbors.The more obvious differences between Chinese and western dietary patterns is buffet dinner which is popular in the West.This method is to display all food, and everybody is picking not fixed in his or her places to eat.They walk freely.This approach would provide the emotional interaction between individuals;they never need to put every word on the table.This also shows a western personality and self-respect.However, all the eating without jamming lacks the real affective tone like the Chinese people.Some people want to put the buffet in the Chinese food, but I think it is not feasible.Zhang Qijun in the Principles of Cooking tells us the main reason: “First, buffet is not like drinking tea.Drinking tea is just the thing to you before you choose, and displayed in the cafeteria there is a large number of food to eat, so when you want to have it, it is cold yet.Chinese cuisine will serve hot, if cold, nothing to eat.Secondly, buffet dishes only can do hard dishes and beneficial dishes.Then you can access for large plots.And those most representative of the Chinese culinary arts, such as the tender and lighter dishes, are not in this show.Third, the buffet can do stewing pot;it means a big pot in terms of food.Any sophisticated cooking of a dish can only be cooked in a pot at two most, and it is not able to cook the dish for dozens of people.So it will not be delicious, never talking of the taste.Under such circumstances, it is clear that the use of buffet dinner will deny Chinese culinary arts.“The Chinese people are drinking around the table to show harmony and unity, but the buffet has broken such pattern.It raises the personal independence and self-mentioned at the first place.This is the opposite of the scale of the great unity of all Chinese traditional culture.2.4 The different utensils and etiquette
2.4.1 Cutlery to use
Chopsticks and knife and fork is the basic difference between Chinese and Western table manners.Zhejiang University, Professor Yu Xiu ling: East and West appear chopsticks and knife and fork eating the different tools and environment relationship.Bamboo chopsticks to have originated in the place.Northern China
wood, bamboo from southern China, ancestors from local materials, bamboo and wood have become the most primitive materials chopsticks chopsticks.The
emergence of a knife and fork than chopsticks much later.According to research by Professor Yu Xiu Ling, the original knife and fork and European origin living in ancient nomadic habits, they immediately carry knives of life, often cooked the meat, cut off to eat.About 15 centuries before and after the meal in order to improve posture, Europeans used the double-pointed cross.To the 18th century only the tip of a fork with four forks.Knife and fork and chopsticks, not only brought different eating habits, also affected the Eastern and Western concepts in life.Professor Yu Xiu Ling, eating into the system will inevitably bring a knife and fork, and chopsticks sitting around the table with family members must dine match.Beginning point of Western food, which derived from the West pay attention to independent, children grow up into the world after the independence of ideas and habits.The chopsticks brought together meals daily, highlighting the young and old sat together in the family unit, so that Asians have a relatively strong family values.When I reminded in the use of Chinese and Western dishes have different specifications.If not play with chopsticks when eating Chinese food(to them when the drumstick is a very rude way), but can not use chopsticks pointing to the person or make gestures.Of course, absolutely can not suck or the chopsticks chopsticks inserted in the rice, which is taboo(which seems to funeral incense is considered unlucky.)When using the knife and fork there are some taboos.Such as holding a knife and fork when not meddling.To speak or talk, knife and fork on the plate should only decency.Avoid using their own utensils for others bowl.Do not bend over picking up utensils fall.Do not cut off a good meal products, especially products with a soup meal, to eat a piece-by-all and more.2.4.2 Seating arrangements Western formal banquets are particular about the seating arrangements.Traditional Chinese dinner with square table.Door is on both sides of the partial blocks.Treat, the elderly, people with high status of the guest of honor sit or seat, men and women who sat down the owner or Peiqia Block, and the remaining customers in order to sit side seat.Westerners treat with a long table, men and women sit in the owner at both ends, then the guest of honor men and women and the general order of the guests seating arrangements, that men and women interspersed arrangement, subject to seat the hostess, the guest of honor sitting in the top right of the hostess, Main Binfu the top right of man of the house to sit, pay attention to “ladies first” Western gentleman, will show the attentions of the ladies.In China, respect for the left and right for the times;on respect, under second;in respect, partial for the times.In the West, respect for the right, left for the times.I particularly Western seat etiquette tips: The most graceful way is seated from the left seat.Do not put your elbows on the desktop, not Rocker foot.Can not withdraw in the middle of the meal(if things do need to leave should be whispered about greeting guests.)Dinner, sit up straight, back straight, neck elongation.Depend on the upper arm and back to back, abdomen, and a table for about a fist distance.Remember to head high with food, in the face of the food into the mouth, it is necessary to the food to the mouth to mouth opinions on the food rather than bent.2.4.3 Dining atmosphere Trouble on the table of Chinese and Western food on the table is static and the most fundamental difference between Chinese and Western table manners.Table climate differences, the Chinese table action, the Western table static.Chinese food for life to matter to music, show and great, the atmosphere of excitement is often breathtaking.Chinese people get a table, then in full flight, with each other for food, drinks upon, enjoy, delicacies, delicious cuisine.Banquet this way in order to reflect the enthusiasm and sincerity the owner, the table reflects the excitement of patrons from the heart‟s delight.This “trouble” to some extent reflects the Chinese family from the warm, neighborhood harmony, unity and people‟s “Harmony.” Westerners have a table to sit quietly dedicated to cutting their own dinner.Soup can not make noise, such as hot soup can be cooled before eating, do not blow through your mouth.Shut up when eating chewing.Do not lick their lips or smack sound.Guests can dine and talk about, but not only with a few acquaintances talk.If guests do not know about, they may first introduce myself.Others can not take the mouth interrupted his speech.Keep the volume level of the other party can hear.Chewing of food do not speak, even if someone speak to you, have to wait to answer after swallowing.2.5 Differences in diet attribution There are differences between Chinese and western diet attribution.Western diet tends to be scientific and rational, but the Chinese diet tends to be art and sentimental.During the underdevelopment era of diet, these two trends have only one aim – to live and never be hungry.And when the dietary culture is full developed, the tendency is shown in this different purpose: the former is in the development of nutrition, the latter is expressed as the stress on the flavor.Cooking is from diet;the origin of food is a life-sustaining nutrition.Therefore, the focus of western diet is only the extension of the original diet practicality.The emphasis on the flavor of Chinese cuisine caters the diet to the arts field.Mencius said: “Flavor in the mouth has the same interests”.“Interests” points out the key from nutrition to arts.Such interests are from the meaning of flavor.In China, eating is not meant to have enough.It is about nutrition.Sometimes we eat though we are full.We are overloaded with food.Why? Saying bluntly, it is to appreciate the art of cooking;and not saying it nicely, it is the temptation of “delicious” for the enjoyment of taste.Watching the rational diet in the west, it is not only waste, but also harmful to the men body.In fact, the herbalist doctors are also opposed to overeat, claiming “dietary restraint”.But the dialectics tell us Chinese people, occasionally the “overload” and once we are comfortable, we can absorb and store.Qigong masters at the situation of non-eat and non-drink at home is still in good spirits, although their weight loses, but it is intact on the human body;and it is the consumption of such storage.Herbalist doctor also advocates winter nutrition.It is also in order to store for keeping energy in the coming year.Chinese people‟s views are more dialectical than the western diet propositions opposing overloaded stubbornly.It is closer to the science truth, and has been checked up for thousands of Chinese medicine practice.Psychologists Spinoza said: “The desire is human nature than other.” The human desire for delicious is the nature of human beings which is fully reflected.In process of the taste enjoyment, it is imbued with the shares of élan vital.Life should not be a yoke, but also not be a repressed desire.We can not use the absolute reason to regulate the behavior of all people.On the diet, it is not the purpose of “science” and “nutrition” and some delicious are excluded from the table outside.Only delicious things can satisfy people‟s appetite and then give the arrival of physical and mental pleasure.Chinese diet shows the transformation about sentimental form to rational form from the old days till now, and cause the Chinese dietary culture brimming with imagination and creativity.The sensibility of Chinese culinary culture is a sublime sensibility, infiltrating rational sense, also the realization of the nature of life.In addition, gustatory enjoyment is one of the main objectives pursued of the human struggle.The art of Chinese cuisine is compatible with the development of human history in the process, more scientific than the progress of the western diet.As Zhang Qijun in his work Cooking Principles said: “The United States is unprecedented least affluent society, but till today, in essence it is still „food to eat‟ stage.There are still some distances from entering the realm of art.” In China, The role of diet goes beyond the subsistence of existence, which is designed not only to have the physical presence, but also to meet people‟s spiritual needs for pleasure.It is positive to enrich people‟s life performance, and fine arts, music, literature, etc.which have the same level of significance to the improvement of life.Chinese diet tends to artistry, the so-called art realm.In fact, that is a complete leap from the necessity to freedom.It is characterized by randomness.For example, similar dishes, because of the differences in area, season, target, function and grade, it has different treatments on operation.Set braised fish for example, in winter deep colors are advised and tastes are advised strongly, but in summer it should be light color and flavor.And for the people in Zhejiang province, their dishes can be put up more sugar in the braised fish, and if facing Chuanxiang customers it should allocate spicy.It easy to see that if out of the arbitrary, there would be no cooking variety;we will lose the unique charm of Chinese cuisine.Whereas in the west, dishes in different areas and different seasons and facing different customers, is the same flavor, no changes.Although it is the most valuable banquet, which is just tableware known, conducted layout, and the vegetables remain the same as before.Moreover, as for materials, westerners think the food is to eat, eating special “hard vegetables” such as large piece of meat, chicken block.China‟s cuisine is “taste”.The Chinese cooking in materials has shown tremendous arbitrariness: The things which many, many westerners consider as disposable things in China are excellent raw materials.Foreign cooks are not able to deal with things, but in the hands of a Chinese chef, it can get a magic result.Chinese cuisine is evident in the wide use of materials.Besides skills, an excellent cook, of course, can do more complicated dishes.But facing the real simple materials and condiments, the cooks are often able to produce delicious flavors.It is the arbitrariness of skills.In the surface, the menu seems to be scientific.Westerners always use menu to buy ingredients to produce dishes, but in comparison, it is the machinery, and often powerless facing the complex specific situation.Of course, this mechanical science is still can be said as science, but it is primitive science, and it is not the complete science.Chinese cooking talks about artistry, but it still fit the requirements among the ever-changing, it can be said such science is a real science.The characters of western food which lacks nutrition and artistic atmosphere have great distinction from the artistic realm of Chinese cuisine.3.Nature of the differences between Chinese and Western food
Differences in the nature of the Chinese and western diet are inosculated with the respective lifestyle and the pace of life.In the west, people do the duplication of pipeline operations, and implement piece-wage system, so the paces of their lives are so fast.People fall under the mechanical method either intentionally or unintentionally, and believe that “Work is work, and game is game.” Mechanical lives led to oneness of diet or a single blind about diet, and eat beefsteak and potatoes every day.Monotonous diet is the same as work, for which the purposes is to fulfill the “incident”, naturally with no interests, and all these have no word in terms of taste.But China is not, “The game is work, and the work is of a game”.Such life manner is also emerged in diet.A baker sells bread in the street, he likes using the rolling pole to beat the chopping board rhythmically when they knead flour.When the cooks fry a dish, even beating scoop, they also care the sense of rhythm during cooking.These would not work for any conveniences, but it increases the interests of workers.Only in such an atmosphere work will be meaningful, and it will have more creativity and artistry of Chinese cuisine.There still exist various differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures.But with the development of cultural communication between China and the west, along with the strengthening of communication between China and the west, China has imported various kinds of western food, known as the “KFC” “DICOS”, “McDonald”.This marks a new western dietary culture exchanges and infiltration.We believe that with the development of society, the cultural differences between Chinese and western dietary will no longer be the difference.4.Conclusion
Diet is absolutely necessary in the life of mankind, and even in the existence or development.Because of the differences between Chinese and western cultural traditions, the Chinese and western dietary cultures are different in concept, target, pattern, attribution and nature.We study these differences and then find out the points that can be digested, in order to facilitate the communication about cultures between China and the west.Western culture(in particular, modern American culture)can be said to be male and female culture.But the Chinese culture can be said to be a dietary culture.“As the reason of the cultural traditions, the western lives tend to men and women , Chinese people are dumping guidance on life in the restaurants.Thus the diet is rich in culture.Food culture in the west is not developed enough, but this underdevelopment itself is the result of the development of a culture, so it is still significant to study the dietary cultures of Chinese and Western diet.By the analysis of the differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures, we can comprehend the respective cultural traditions of China and the west.And we can also improve and create the culture of China.In short, analyzing and researching in the Western diet and cultural differences has a very important significance in Chinese food culture.It is not only in understanding the purpose of this fact in itself, but also it is more importantly and useful to guide our practice, based on the awareness-raising, improve food structure, get rid of food abuse, improve the food quality and guarantee people‟s needs, in this kind of way to promote Chinese dining culture.By the text from this thesis, we can easily find that there still exist various differences between Chinese and western dietary cultures.But with the development of cultural communication between China and the west, along with the strengthening of communication between China and the west, China has imported various kinds of western food, known as the “KFC” “DICOS”, “McDonald”.These mark a new western food culture exchanges and infiltration.The impact brought about by economic globalization is stronger and deeper than the internationalization.Economic globalization is a double-edged sword, on one hand, it brings the vitality of economic growth, and on the other hand, the dominant culture is put into other countries through strong economic and infiltrated every corner of the globe.Therefore, the cultural communication focus on how to assimilate advantages of the other countries‟ culture, abandon its shortcoming, and learn how to transform and make it localized, all countries need to study the issue.So in the face of the dietary cultural exchange problems between China and the West, we should find each other‟s advantages and draw the mutual advantages, as China can learn from the point that western diet stresses nutrition match, and make the Chinese cuisine more outstanding.China is a country with an ancient culture and is rich in cultural traditions.She feeds the 1.3 billion Chinese people, and Chinese culture is very inclusive;in the course of development it absorbs a lot of different cultures.Moreover, now China does more efforts to draw all the outstanding achievements in the World.China‟s reform and opening up policy create the conditions on international relations and cultural exchanges.We need to use such an opportunity to absorb the excellent cultures from other countries, to develop and create China‟s new culture.Acknowledgements
My deepest gratitude goes first and foremost to Miss Tu Huiqin, my supervisors, for her constant encouragement and guidance.I would not have survived all work without the constant support that she gave me.She has walked with me through the first stage of writing this paper.Without her consistent and illuminating instruction, this paper would not have reached its present form.I would also like to extend my sincere thanks to all my teachers at the English Department.Thanks to their instructive guidance and comprehensive education during the four year‟s college life, I can acquire the opportunity to further study my English.References
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2011-2012学年第1学期
标题„„中西方葡萄酒文化对比
班级：N09070
51学号：N090705107
姓名：蒋达凯
1、近现代中国葡萄酒
1892年，爱国华侨实业家张弼士在烟台创办了张裕葡萄酒公司，并在烟台栽培葡萄。这是我国葡萄酒业经过二千多年的漫长发展后，出现的第一个近代新型葡萄酒厂，贮酒容器也从瓮改用橡木桶。1914年，公司正式出酒，即在当年举办的南洋劝业会上获得最高优质奖章。1915年，在巴拿马万国博览会上，张裕所产的红葡萄酒、白兰地、味美思，以及用欧洲著名优良葡萄品种命名的“雷司令”、“解百纳”葡萄酒等荣获金质奖章，自此烟台葡萄酒名声大振。此后，太原、青岛、北京、通化相继建成葡萄酒厂。这些厂的规模虽不大，但我国葡萄酒工业己初步形成，葡萄酒的消费面扩大。由于军阀连年混战，帝国主义的摧残，官僚资本的掠夺，我国的葡萄酒业难以生存，连赫赫有名的张裕葡萄酒公司也难以维持，于1948年公司宣告破产。改革开放到90年代中期，对葡萄酒的研究虽然有很大的发展，但还不是非常繁荣，研究范围还比较窄，主要是葡萄酒栽培技术的读物。另外，随着对外开放程
度的加大，有更多的学者对国外的葡萄酒，特别是对法国葡萄酒予以介绍。90年代中期以后，在中国兴起“葡萄酒热”，葡萄酒产量和消费量有了大幅度的提高，对葡萄酒方面的研究空前高涨。这一阶段的葡萄酒论著论述内容涉及到葡萄种植、葡萄酒酿制工艺、葡萄酒品评、葡萄酒文化、葡萄酒市场营销等。研究的范围扩大了，对行业有显著的指导意义。除此以外，对葡萄酒研究不断深化的重要表现，是各类学术研讨会的召开和各级研究机构的成立。
2、世界葡萄酒发展历史
葡萄酒可以说是世界上历史最悠久的酒了，它的历史超过一万年，因为葡萄极容易自然发酵，人类的祖先从葡萄的自然发酵中发明了现代文明之一的发酵技术，据考古资料记载，大约在7000年前，葡萄开始在高加索、中亚细亚、叙利亚、伊拉克等地栽培，后来传至埃及、希腊。在埃及的古墓中发现大量的浮雕，清晰地描绘出古埃及的栽培、采摘葡萄和酿制葡萄酒的情景，这是葡萄酒酿制的开始。伴随着希腊海外殖民地拓展，葡萄酒传到黑海及地中海沿岸各地，包括意大利，法国及西班牙等地。罗马帝国在扩张的同时将葡萄的种植向北传播到欧洲各地。葡萄酒除了被用来作为祭祀的用品，也作为饮品，葡萄酒是耶稣圣血的象征，在天主教的宗教仪式中，葡萄酒有不可或缺的地位。罗马帝国灭亡后，教会的力量，对葡萄酒的发展扮演重要角色，有赖教会的努力，葡萄不仅在地中海区域普遍地种植，而且被带往北部天气严寒、葡萄生长困难的区域，意外促成了寒冷气候区葡萄酒业的发展。
17、18世纪商业的勃兴，促成了中产阶段的兴起，也为高级葡萄酒提供了一个广大的市场。玻璃瓶与软木塞的普遍使用，让波尔多及勃良第等地开始生产品质卓越的久存型葡萄酒，19世纪中白新大陆传进欧洲的根瘤蚜虫病几乎完全摧毁了所有欧洲的葡萄园，这是有史以来遭受的最大灾害，只在法国就有两百五十万公顷的葡萄园受到殃及。80年代，才找到根绝的方法:将欧洲种葡萄嫁接到美国种葡萄上，因为美国种葡萄树根不会受蚜虫的侵扰。有关葡萄酒酿造，法国细菌学家巴斯得也在十九世纪开始科学性的研究，使得酿造技术大幅提升。20世纪在葡萄酒的酿造技术上有长足的进步，不仅酿造的过程更能精确控制，而且发展出各种新式的酿造方法，让欧洲以外的新兴葡萄酒产国在葡萄酒业快速成一长，成为欧洲葡萄酒的主要对手。但另一方面，葡萄园的天然环境也越来越受到重视。法国从 1936年建立AOC法定产区管制系统奠立欧洲葡萄酒业保存传统葡萄酒的基础，地方风味得以延续。
（一）酿酒工艺的对比
现阶段我国的葡萄酒企业的酿酒工艺、技术水平与世界同步。无论是像张裕、王朝、长城等大型葡萄酒企业，还是诸多名不见经传的中小型葡萄酒企业，酿造葡萄酒的设备，生产葡萄酒的工艺技术，酿造葡萄酒的原辅材料等等，基本上都是与国际同步的，大都引进的是国外最先进的设备，最先进的技术，最先进的辅料。如华夏率先在国内采用新型无机过滤技术，引进了国际最先进的高科技环保型德国赛多利斯公司的卷式错流过滤设备。这种工艺设备不仅降低了葡萄酒在处理过程中能源的损耗，也进一步提高了葡萄酒品质。可以说在技术和设备上，国产葡萄酒已近接近或者等同于国际水平。而且，张裕、长城和王朝等领军品牌逐渐切入国际葡萄原酒市场，进行国外葡萄酒厂的收购或者参股更是一步到位地得到国际一流的技术与设备。
此外，亚洲唯一的葡萄酒学院西北农林科技大学葡萄酒学院——世界在校和培养学生最大的葡萄酒专业人才学府之一，同时，全国多所农业院校或开设葡萄酒工程学科、或开设葡
萄酒研究机构、或与企业联合培养高素质酿酒人才，为中国葡萄酒行业的科技进步奠定了人才和技术基础。在技术规范方面，法律法规体系日益完善，逐渐与国际接轨。自2003年起，国家正式废除了半汁葡萄酒的标准，禁止企业生产含水的葡萄酒。这意味着葡萄酒业向规范化又迈出一大步。《规范》在许多方面有较详细和系统的规定,如对葡萄汁按中途抑制发酵葡萄汁、浓缩葡萄汁和焦糖葡萄汁三类进行定义和说明。对特种葡萄酒也按利口葡萄酒、冰葡萄酒和山葡萄酒等10类一一定义说明,且在许多地方参照国际葡萄和葡萄酒组织的标准,与国际接轨是大势所趋。《规范》的出台将促进葡萄酒行业的有序竞争和良性发展。而2008年正式实施的新标准是广泛参照了国际葡萄酒标准制定的，作为强制性标准并增加了根据含糖量进行的分类和感官分级评价的描述，将有力推动中国葡萄酒国际化进程。其中对年份、品种、产区等概念的明确定义也是规范性企业期盼已久的。
（二）酒文化核心的差异
酒作为文化的一种载体，与文化一样，由于历史背景、生活环境、宗教信仰、风俗习惯和思维模式等的不同，在中西方呈现出其风格迥异、异彩 纷呈的民族特性。现在仅从酒史、酒器、酒礼及酒德四方面 对中西方的酒文化进行粗浅的对比。
酒史方面中国自古以来无论祭祀、加冕、喜宴、聚会还是政治斗争，都离不开酒。我国的酒史源远流长，是世界第一大酒国。西方国家以葡萄酒和啤酒著称。有人认为葡萄酒和啤酒首先是在西方国家发现并酿造的，中国葡萄酒和啤酒的产生和规模生产都比外国要晚。“1９９６年，西方考古学家在伊朗发现，人类于七千年前饮用葡萄酒。美国考古学家也证实，在扎格罗斯山脉一个石器时代晚期的村庄，发掘出一个罐子，这个罐子产生于公元前５４１５年，里面有残余的 葡萄酒”。至于啤酒，“有文献表明，此物起源于四千年至六 千年前古埃及的尼罗河畔。在两千年前的巴比伦模纳比时代，就已编著出《啤酒酿造法》，南巴比伦国王模纳比亲手 撰写而成”。
酒器方面酒器是指盛装酒的器具。酒器的历史与酒的历史同样悠久且种类繁多。酒器的发展与一个国家经济的发展是分不开的，在不同 的历史时期，酒器的生产技术、材料及外形可以反映出当时 一个国家的经济及文化发展水平。中国人历来就十分重视酒 器的使用，形状各异、色彩缤纷的酒器使人们在饮酒的同时也能得到美的享受，同时也反映出了中国艺术文化的独特魅力。西方的酒器虽然没有中国这么丰富，但也有其特色，而且，西方人讲究在不同的场合，饮用不同的酒，要选用不同的洒杯，像葡萄酒杯、白酒杯、白兰地酒杯及香槟酒杯等。此外，西方酒杯的制作讲究轻薄透明，因此其酒器多为玻璃 和水晶制品，以便于欣赏酒的色泽，进而判断出酒的档次高低。西方人喝酒时习惯玩弄酒杯，让酒在杯中回旋，因此，西方酒杯的外形大都是窄口宽肚，不仅美观大方，而且轻巧实用，在保留酒香的同时还避免酒的溢出。由此可见，中国的酒器形象、优美；西方的酒器轻巧、方便，虽然差别比较 明显，但各有其文化特色。现如今，随着社会的不断发展，中国传统的酒器已经少见，西方的酒器开始在中国受到欢迎，这也是我们提倡的文化融合的一种体现。
酒礼方面中国素有“礼仪之邦”的美称，自古以来人们就十分 重视礼数，礼几乎渗透到了人们生活的方方面面。“无酒不 成礼”，酒作为我国传统文化的一部分，自然与礼有着密切的关系，因此，我们把与酒有关的礼数称为酒礼。时至今日，人们仍然遵守着这些饮酒的礼节，只是更加宽泛、灵活。人们随时都町以邀亲朋好友来聚会，而且在聚会时也不再
先敬 天、地、鬼、神，但还会分等级和场合来敬酒。中国人喝酒注重人，讲究气氛，倒酒时要“以满为敬”，喝酒时要“以干为敬”；碰杯时，晚辈或下级的酒杯要低于长辈或上级的酒杯；敬酒时，晚辈和下级要主动，还要说敬酒词；有些地方还存在严重的劝酒现象，喝到不醉不归等等。与中国不同，西方的酒礼没有如此繁琐的讲究，他们喝酒在于调动各个器官去品酒，享受其中的美味。首先，在西方国家，上酒有一定的顺序，依次是：开胃酒、主菜佐酒、甜点酒和餐后酒；此外，在酒宴上，喝酒的气氛 比较缓和，从不猜拳，高声叫喊；斟酒提倡至酒杯的三分之二即可；敬酒选择在主菜之后，甜菜之前，而且要高举酒杯，注视对方以示敬意，有时也会说一些祝酒词，但不存在 “以干为敬”的现象，也从不劝酒。
从英汉委婉语对比看中西方文化
委婉语作为人类交流语言的组成部分,是世界各种语言中的普遍现象.同时委婉语也是一种文化现象.英汉两种语言都有大量委婉语,它们既有同又有异.本文通过分析比较英汉委婉语的`差异,揭示出揭示了这一语言现象中所蕴含的深厚文化内涵.对委婉语的研究有助于提高英语学习者的文化意识和跨文化交际能力,为成功进行跨文化交际铺平道路.
作 者：陈彦彦 作者单位：安徽大学外语学院,安徽・合肥,230039刊 名：安徽文学(评论研究)英文刊名：ANHUI LITERATURE年，卷(期)：“”(12)分类号：H3关键词：语言 委婉语 文化差异 跨文化交际
1 中西方文化差异的原因
英国文化学家泰勒提出, 文化是包括知识、信仰、艺术、道德、法律等的复杂整体。英汉两种民族在各自的历史长河中, 受多种因素综合影响, 逐渐形成本民族的文化特点。
1.1 地理环境的影响
地理环境决定生存方式, 生存方式决定文化习惯。西方文明是海洋文明, 无论是古希腊、英吉利, 还有北欧一些国家和地区, 都是大海环绕, 耕地面积少而贫瘠, 只能发展航海贸易, 以向外扩张空间。所以, 西方文化从源头开始, 逐渐形成喜欢探索、武力征服的外向型文化。
而汉民族长期生活在黄河、长江流域的沃土, 属于典型的封闭型农耕文化, 长期相对安逸、缺乏冒险的生活逐渐养成其好静的内向型文化特质。
1.2 政治、经济制度的影响
古希腊实行城邦制度, 分为贵族制和民主制, 采取独立、民主、法制的形式来实行统治。经济上, 不是封闭的农业社会, 而是扩张性的庄园经济、开放的商业社会。频繁的贸易往来, 外邦人的大量迁入, 导致社会中血缘性的亲族组织瓦解。逐渐形成外向型的斗争精神和强烈的维权意识。
中国古代的政治制度是以专制主义中央集权制度为核心, 血缘亲族关系是传统社会中的深层结构。长期自给自足的封建自然经济, 形成“和为贵、忍为高”的意识形态。
1.3 宗教信仰的影响
西方文化的源头来自于古希腊文明、古希伯来文明和古罗马文明。经过历时的发展, 古希腊的哲学、古罗马的法律, 以及古希伯来的犹太教, 都和基督教结合起来, 将科学、法律、伦理融合起来, 共同构筑了西方文化体系。基督教作为一种意识形态渗透于西方社会各个方面, 塑造了西方文化的基本精神, 并且培养了西方人的心理习惯。基督教是一种哲学化的宗教, 它的核心是对神的本质的论述和对神人关系的思考, 持“性恶论”, 犯罪感与忏悔成为永恒的主题。
中国长期以来受佛教、道教以及儒家影响, 主张“神人合一”的“性善论”, 强调修德养心来感悟自身存在的价值, 以达到“天人合一”的境界。
2 英汉思维差异比较
萨丕尔认为语言和思维密切相关, 语言是思维的必要工具, 思维是一种复杂的心理活动, 也是语言的最高级的潜在内容, 语言的发展充分依赖于思维的发展, 思维的发展也会推动语言的发展, 二者相互促进。中西方文化在历史发展上形成语言、文化上的各种差异, 因而产生了操两种语言的民族不同的思维模式。主要体现在, 中国文化注重抽象思维、感性思维、归纳思维, 强调集体主义、群体本位;西方文化注重逻辑思维、理性思维、演绎思维, 强调个人主义、个体本位。
2.1“聚集型”与“流散型”
例如:
It is inspiring to learn of some of the work being done by these young people, who bring creativity and innovation to the challenges they face.
令人鼓舞的是, 我了解到一些年轻人正在做着一些事情, 他们面对挑战, 富于创造力和创新精神。
可以看出, 英语句子有严谨的主谓结构, 逻辑严密, 多为长句。而汉语主谓结构复杂、多样、灵活, 不受形态约束, 没有主谓形式协调一致的关系, 句式呈“流散型”, 形散神似, 多用短句。
2.2 客体思维与主体思维
例如:
The thick carpet killed the sound of my footsteps.
我走在厚厚的地毯上, 听不到我的脚步声。
It occurs to that it must be a tame horse.
我想到了:这也许是一匹驯服的马。
英语句子常用物称 (非人称) 表达式, 表示客观、理性的客体思维方式。汉语是主体思维, 强调主体性、直观性、情感性, 重人称, 往往从自我出发来叙述客观事物或倾向于描述人及其行为或状态。
2.3 抽象思维与形象思维
例如:
I talked to him with brutal frankness.
我对他讲的话, 虽然逆耳, 却是忠言。
英语表达中, 使用抽象词“brutal”“frankness”, 注重抽象思维, 不能从字面意思简单地直译, 而要采取意译。汉语的相对表达中采用具体的“忠言逆耳”表达方式。
再如:
The three men sat down facing each other and began casually chatting.
三个人品字式坐下, 随便聊了起来。
汉语表达用象形文字“品字式”, 偏重形象表达。而英语表达使用具体事物, 突出指称意义。
2.4 静态与动态表达
例如:
他总是说谎。He is a great liar.
她打开抽屉拿出钢笔。Opening the drawer, he took out a pen.
从以上例句可以看出, 英语表达中名词或者名词化表达法更常见, 使得整个语言表达呈静态。而汉语倾向于多用动词或多动词谓语句, 语言叙述多呈动态。
2.5 英语常用被动句, 汉语常用主动句
如:“I have been closely associated with the Commonwealth through most of its existence.” (英国女王2009年圣诞致辞)
“在英联邦成立以来的大部分时间里, 我都同它联系紧密。”
2.6 顺向思维与逆向思维
例如:
“您先请.”“After you.”
九五折A five percent discount
东北, 西南Northeast, Southwest
钢铁Iron and steel
晴雨Rain and shine
从以上英汉语言表达中可以看出, 英语和汉语在一些词序的表达上恰恰相反, 进一步体现了两种语言的思维差异。
3 英汉思维差异对跨文化交际的影响
英语是思维的工具, 也是最直接的交流工具, 可分为言语交际与非言语交际。交际离不开文化基础, 即以语言为工具的跨文化交际。英汉两种语言在思维上的诸多差异, 无疑会影响人们跨文化交际的效果。
3.1 词汇差异
英语是分析性语言, 单词有曲折变化, 而汉语属于综合性语言, 强调整体思维。因此, 单词的构词有大量的前缀和后缀;英语名词分为可数与不可数名词, 可数名词有单复数区别, 与汉语思维中对数的表达概念不同;英语中人称代词有主格、宾格之分, 在句子中分别充当固定的成分;名词性物主代词和形容词性物主代词也是汉语思维中没有的。此外, 英汉词汇在概念表达、内涵意义和搭配意义等方面存在不对等现象。例如, 英语“black tea”对应汉语的“红茶”等。
3.2 句式差异
英汉语言在遣词造句上有着很大差异。例如, 汉语有时候可以把宾语放在句首, “这部电影我看过。”而英语表达中一般没有这样的句式。关于句式本文第二节已经做了详细区分, 在此不再赘述。句式的选择与理解会导致跨文化交际中的障碍, 应在跨文化交际中加以重视。
3.3 世界观、价值观差异
由于历史环境以及哲学观的不同, 两种语言思维下对待世界的看法不同。即对人在宇宙中的位置、人与大自然的关系等方面, 西方文化认为人是世界的中心, 人们可以利用科学技术征服自然, 是“天人各一”的思想;而东方文化认为人与自然应该和谐相处, 是“天人合一”思想。西方文化受基督教影响, 人们的价值观受到上帝的限制与监督;而东方价值观诸如“君子爱财取之以道”更多的是受道德教化的影响。世界观和价值观是深层次的文化体现, 对跨文化交际有着潜移默化的暗示作用。
4 如何培养英语思维方式
4.1 大量模仿
心理语言学家认为, 语言是从听觉活动开始的, 经过大脑分析器的作用, 然后由心理活动器官操练完成。所以, 培养英语思维方式首先要从听力模仿开始, 不断进行重复练习。
4.2 克服母语的负迁移影响
负迁移:要了解英汉语言在文化和思维方式, 以及语言表达上的差异, 尽量摆脱汉语影响, 主动直接用英语去思维, 而不是先用汉语思维然后翻译成英语。
4.3 主动创设英语环境以培养语感
乔姆斯基认为, 语感是语言学习的核心, 语感越强就越能创造性地学习和使用语言。培养语感的主要方法是进行英语文章的背诵、多看英语原版书籍、看英语原声电影、听英语电台等, 使自己融入英语世界。此外, 参加各种英语活动, 多与英美人士交流, 使自己身临其境, 逐渐养成英语思维习惯。
5 结束语
总之, 英汉不同文化之间的差异是由于各自民族的文化历史背景不同而产生的, 是社会发展中约定俗成的现象。英汉语言中存在着明显的思维模式差异。英语学习可以分为三个层面:器物层, 即英语是交流的工具;制度层, 即英语是文化的载体;思想层, 即英语是认知或思维的工具。我们在外语学习的过程中, 不仅要重视语言内容本身的学习, 还要了解不同文化之间的差异, 提高文化适应性, 从文化高度上提高外语的熟练程度, 从而有效地进行跨文化交际;更要对比思维模式的差异, 培养英语思维模式, 才能在两种语言中进行自由转化。
摘要：英语学习归根结底是思维方式的学习。该文从中西方文化的根源出发, 探讨两种文化差异产生的原因, 以及在思维模式上的不同体现, 从而使英语学习者从文化差异的层面培养英语思维。
关键词：中西方文化对比,英汉差异,英语思维
参考文献
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中国文化自成一体，源远流长。自周始，宗法已备，其后商君，始皇封疆设陌，使中华文化世代相承，虽多次历经文化的整合和外来文化的入侵，但均以融会贯通和发展为最终结果。尧舜禹的宗教改革，奠定了奴隶制，也为中国古代政治的统一、文化的整合奠定了基础；殷商之时，“巫师文化”盛行不仅对中国人思维方式的连续起到了稳固作用，还成为隐含于中国传统文化的重要内涵；而后，儒道互补的思想與秦汉大一统的统治也都为两千年封建传统文化的延续起到了主导建筑作用。所以，中国的文化是遵循一条主脉络，以累积或叠加的途径发展的，是统一连续的。
西方文化源于古希腊、罗马，而古希腊文化的产生又源于对古埃及和美索不达米亚文化的借鉴。基督教产生之后，将上帝、人和自然分离，形成了与古埃及、罗马文化的宇宙整体论不同的宇宙观。此外，西方文化以生产技术与贸易输入的积累为基础，最终促成了西方走向现代化的工业文明，并在历史进程中形成文化的破裂性与阶段性特质，而科学的方式也使自古希腊以来的西方文化一直以一种圆心的发展模式向外逐渐扩散。
对比中西不同的文化模式会发现，中国传统文化的思维模式追求合二为一，把宇宙视为一个统一的整体，是综合的一元论；西方传统文化的思维模式则以分析为手段，把世界视为不同的部分，追求一分为二，是解析的二元论。
在中西思维模式发展过程中，西方形成了注重逻辑推理的思维方式，并结合古希腊的理想主义和科学主义为雕塑艺术的典范奠定了重要基础；中国则强调直观意象，通过感觉来直观体验、感悟并把握对象的特征，由此形成了儒、道、释三家合一的理学思维，促成了中国古代艺术创作的基本观念和表现方式。这种直观、意象的思维方式侧重从特殊、具体的直观领域中去把握真理，它超越了概念、逻辑，成为一种创造性思维，显示了中国人在思维过程中活泼不滞、长于悟性的高度智慧。因此，也就形成了与西方注重分析、偏重抽象的思维方式所不同的文化特质。表现在造型艺术上，就形成了中国雕塑注重意和象的融合，注重通过意象之后的表现，营造写意艺术的观念。这种偏重象征、表现、写意、追求美与善统一的独特思维方式异于西方艺术注重比例、解剖、透视的精确、追求美与真的思维模式，造成了中西雕塑的差异。
二、弘扬个性，追寻真实——自由国度下对美的探索
在古希腊的艺术长廊中，几乎所有的作品都深深地打上了追求个性的印记，这自然离不开古希腊的社会背景。然而，艺术家们在雕塑创作中对艺术个性的刻意追求则起着直接的作用。罗丹认为：“在艺术中，有性格的作品，才是美的”。我们现在所看到的古希腊雕塑作品几乎都是个性鲜明的例证。在这其中，对人体美的发现与赞美既是古希腊伟大的艺术成就，也是显著的艺术特征，并成为表现个性的审美意识和传统。因为，大多古希腊的雕刻家们都精于解剖，他们对人体的比例、骨骼、肌肉的起伏，都谙熟于心，所以雕塑时才能得心应手。
雕塑家们在注意面部表情的同时更注重描绘人体动态构成的曲线美，观察受到感情影响的运动中的肉体的真实反映。他们感到面部动作往往会破坏和扭曲头像单纯的端正感，因此，把人体理解为活的肌体、通过肌肉的运动来表现人物复杂的性格。罗丹说：“实际上，没有一条人体的肌肉不表达内心的变化，一切肌肉都在表示快乐和悲哀、兴奋和失望、静穆和狂怒，……。伸着两臂、斜倚的躯干是和眼睛与嘴唇同样能温柔地微笑”。古希腊的雕刻家把这种技艺运用得出神入化。
《拉奥孔》被誉为是“希腊化”雕刻的典型代表作。在这个雕塑中，拉奥孔神情处于极度的恐怖和痛苦之中，正在极力使自己和他的孩子从两条蛇的缠绕中挣脱出来。他抓住了一条蛇，但同时臀部被咬住了；他左侧的长子似乎还没有受伤，但被惊呆了，正在奋力想把腿从蛇的缠绕中挣脱出来；父亲右侧的次子已被蛇紧紧缠住，绝望地高高举起他的右臂。三个由于痛苦而扭曲的身体，所有的肌肉运动都已达到了极限，甚至到了痉挛的地步，表达出在痛苦和反抗状态下的强大力量和极度的紧张，让人感觉到似乎痛苦流经了所有的肌肉、神经和血管，紧张而惨烈的气氛弥漫着整个作品。该雕塑中人物刻画非常逼真，表现了雕塑家对人体解剖学的精通和对自然的精确观察，以及纯熟的艺术表现力和雕塑技巧。这是一组忠实地再现自然并进行美的加工的典范之作，被誉为是古希腊最著名、最经典的雕塑杰作之一（见图1）。著名的米洛斯的维纳斯雕像也是通过女神那丰腴饱满的躯体和端正大方的容貌，体现着内在的教养和美德（见图2）。帕特农神庙外部回檐上的饰带浮雕《向雅典娜献新衣》，全长160米，高1米，约刻绘三百五十余人体和二百余五十动物。画面有坐着交谈的，有肩负祭品而行的，有策马而驱的，画面错落有致。即使是骑马的，每匹马都各有姿态，绝不雷同（见图3）。这样的例证不胜枚举，充分显示了希腊雕像作品的个性和其对人体美的探索。
古希腊是西方文明的摇篮，人类智慧的象征。作为西方文化的渊源之一，它以独特的风采和卓越的成就享誉世界，以至于“言必称希腊”。古希腊文化和作为希腊文化继承者的罗马文化，启迪了14—17世纪的欧洲文艺复兴运动，对西方文化的发展起了巨大而深远的推动作用。古希腊雕塑艺术的高贵单纯和静穆美丽同时也在整个西方美术传统中占据着十分重要的地位。西方美术崇尚的典范模式，庄重的艺术品格和严谨的写实精神，都是从古希腊开始的。多年来,这种艺术精髓滋润着西方的美术精神生生不息。
三、气势浩荡，显示威德——帝国统治之初地位的象征
在中国，一直有“事死如事生”的传统。古人认为，人死后其灵魂是不朽的，在阴间也会有在阳间的各种需要，也会有你争我斗。因为不同的经历、不同的世界观、不同的社会地位，个人都会对自己在另一个世界的生活进行不同的安排。作为至尊无上的封建帝王，秦始皇为自己死后建立的是一个君主专制的帝国。这个帝国的布局和设置，完全模拟生前的王国，有衣食住行之备，更有保卫这个地下王国的部队——秦兵马俑（见图4）。
兵马俑是帝王陵墓的陪葬品，虽是用以慰藉死者的在天之灵，但其更重要的是宣扬帝王威德。这支被埋于地下两千余年，具有鲜明性格特征的秦代军人，是秦始皇的精锐部队。站在这气势浩荡的军阵前，我们似乎可以看到秦始皇当年指挥千军万马统一六国的磅礴气势。工匠们按照秦始皇的意志，以写实的手法塑造了这批对皇帝尽忠尽力的军人，整个军阵给人以威武、雄壮之感，无处不显示着秦始皇强权的存在和丰功伟绩。
“在古希腊人看来，美是造型艺术的最高法律”。一方面，进行雕塑制作活动就是美化生活、追求艺术享受的过程；另一方面，在创作活动中，美是凌驾于一切之上的创作准则。即便是对神的塑像，也是人格化了的，体现着善与美。而秦俑的创作目的是建造一支为帝王守灵的卫戍部队，以显示帝王个人及其皇家的威严。在制作过程中，受皇权的支配，反映帝王意志的目的是高于艺术性的。古希腊雕塑与秦俑的一个明显差别就是前者以弘扬个性为本，后者表现气势宏伟以及整体上的协调统一。可以说，古希腊以弘扬个性见长，秦俑以表现宏大取胜。
在塑造秦俑的过程中，工匠们只有执行严厉的命令而无表现和创造的权力，统治者的目的就是他们的目的。严格的写实是建造秦俑军阵的最高标准，这一标准贯穿始终。大到军阵的排列、小到发丝、甲钉都充分体现了写实精神（见图5、图6、图7）。但是，由于工匠们是被动的在实现帝王的目的，这种目的性没有也不可能成为他们创作中的行为自觉。而艺术自有政治权力所不能替代和左右的规律，它总是在深层发挥着其本质作用，帝王的目的最终还是要通过工匠的创作才能实现，工匠们进行艺术创造所固有的目的曲折含蓄地流露出来并潜伏在作品的深层，这种矛盾对立的结果是帝王的目的不能真正实现。统治者的本意是让俑阵守灵，而不是赞美秦军。秦俑在这里不是为它自己而创作出来的，只是宗教的一种工具，它对自己所创造的感性形象更看重的是它的意义而不是美。然而，工匠们在创作秦俑的过程中，在写实的要求下，仍然坚持了美的准则。尽管创作目的不是表现美，但艺术规律即美的规律仍然发挥着作用，这成为秦俑高度写实性艺术成就的一个重要组成部分。
四、古拙朴厚，意在形先——社会发展期对美和生活的追求
汉代也是中国雕塑艺术史上一个非常重要的阶段。这一时期的雕塑艺术，是建立在统一的政治基础上，以及繁荣的经济生产基础上的，它出色地继承并发扬了前代的优良传统，使各种类型的雕塑创作都取得了辉煌成就。汉代雕塑成就首先表现在纪念碑式的群雕上，如霍去病墓石刻群雕在中国雕塑史上就有着十分重要的地位，它打破了汉代以前的雕刻模式，建立了更加成熟的中国式纪念碑雕刻风格，具有划时代的意义。现存霍去病墓石刻共有14件，均以花岗岩雕成，以动物形象为主，雕塑风格质朴自然，气魄沉雄博大，是西汉大型石刻的代表作。又如《马踏匈奴》，作者运用了浮雕与线刻相结合的手法，造型古劲朴拙，风格沉着浑厚，尤其是象征手法的运用使之极具艺术感染力（见图8）。而《跃马》的作者非常熟悉马的造型，他更善于利用巨形原石的自然形态，筹划马的图形于开动刀斧之先，并能在关键处施以斧凿，结合圆雕、浮雕及线刻等手法，去粗取精，以精湛的表现技巧刻画出高度提炼概括的汉代骏马形象。石马腿下部并不凿，客观上强化了跃马的雄浑与厚重（见图9），值得一提的还有《伏虎》、《石人》以及各种动物的石刻。
霍去病墓纪念性石刻的重要特点是因石而得形，因形而造意，因意而施工。雕刻工匠们充分利用石块的自然形态，稍加雕凿，充分调动观者的想象力和创造力。这其实主要是道家的思想，不破坏自然本身，要天人合一，要顺乎自然，融为一体，这点和古希腊传统截然相反。他们都是把石头雕成人所需要的样子，而我们保留天然的形状，稍微人工雕凿，意在保留自然美，这个原则一直贯穿于整个中国雕刻艺术史。
此外，“汉承秦制”，秦俑殉葬之制，也被汉代继承下来，虽是承袭前代传统，但在手法的多样化、艺术视野的拓展、时代特有的审美倾向上，无不展示出两汉陶俑的独特艺术特征。汉代的陶俑种类除兵马俑、侍者俑（见图10）、说唱歌舞俑外，还有家禽、家畜等动物陶塑和仓灶、井、磨、楼阁、田园等模型明器。虽较之兵马俑形制大大缩小，但形制精巧，面部表情自然生动，姿态更为丰富，并更贴近生活现实，具有浓郁的生活气息。这其中尤以“说唱”、“杂耍”俑尤为突出（见图11）。
四川省出土的东汉“说唱俑”（见图12）， 这件陶塑在人物动作及面部表情的刻画方面十分杰出，以大幅度的动作和丰富的表情展现了说书人的幽默神态。此说唱俑身材作短胖处理，头冠软帽，上身裸露，两肩微上耸，腹呈鼓状，下着戏装。左赤足曲蹲，右足赤着翘起，腹部前伸，背部向后倾，脸部颅圆额高，额前数道皱纹，眉眼呈似闭还睁之状，嘴半张，微笑吐舌。在夸张的眉宇间，蕴含着一股栩栩如生般的朴实和善的诙谐滑稽，似正说到一段极为精彩之處，脸部的表情显得眉飞色舞，极富想象力和感染力。整体塑像毫无繁琐雕琢，简约流畅、神形兼备、气势非凡，其绝妙之处便是汉代雕塑师善于抓住人物的瞬间动态，并配合以夸张的肢体动作，加强了人物的神态动势，刻画出说书人典型的瞬间情感特征，重在传神，质朴自然。在动势中表现人物的内在神韵，传达了古代先民对生活乐观豁达的人生状态。古代雕塑师借助酣畅淋漓的线条把人物形象塑造得如此逼真传神，当属汉代艺术家的杰作。
五、小结
