新概念英语中英对照（推荐6篇）
一、物流基本概念：
1.Logistics is referred to the article flow, but not including the flow of the people.物流是指物品流动，但不包括人流。
2.The concept of article in logistics includes tangible goods and intangible service, such as customer service, freight agents and logistics network design.物流中，物品的概念包括有形的货物和无形的服务，如客户服务、货运代理及物流网络设计。
3.Logistics documents generally refer to documentations required to complete all processes of logistics, such as contracts, bills, and notes.物流单证一般是指完成整个物流过程所需的文件，如合同、票据、签单。
4.The external logistics is about the macro economic activities, like international trade and global investment.社会物流主要关于宏观经济活动，如国际贸易和全球投资。
5.The four key procedures in the internal logistics are supply, production, distribution and reverse.企业物流的四个关键步骤是：供应、生产、销售和回收。
6.Supply Chain Management(SCM)is a system applied to maximize profits for all parties in the whole logistic system and other economic systems.供应链管理（SCM）是一个系统，应用于将整个物流系统与其他经济体系的所有各方的利益最大化。
7.A standarized logistic system ensures better time management, location choices and distribution capacities.一个标准化的物流管理系统应确保更好的时间管理、地点选择和分配能力。
8.Distribution capacity is value added in the logistic system.配送能力是物流系统的增值(服务)。
9.Logistics system includes customer service, packaging, transportation, storage, distribution processing and information control.物流系统包括客户服务，包装，运输，仓储，流通加工和信息控制。
10.Market share is the proportion of sales of a good or service provided by one company to the industry sales of such good or service.市场份额是指一家公司提供的商品或服务等占行业销售的该商品或服务的比例。
11.The need for outsourcing creates Third Party Logistics.外包需求催生第三方物流。
12.Customer Relationship Management(CRM)is software to manage the relationship and communication between customers and suppliers.客户关系管理（CRM）是管理软件，用于管理客户及供应商之间的沟通与关系。
13.Exclusive distribution refers to the fact that there is only one wholesaler or retailer who selling a product or providing a certain service.独家分销是指，只有一个批发商或零售商销售某种产品或提供某种服务。
14.A logistic model is a standardized module that is used to regulate the cargo transportation, manage logistics facilities and equipments.物流模型是一个标准化的模块，用于调节货物运输、管理物流设施和设备。
15．Letter of credit(L/C)is used exclusively by the buyer.It is a letter issued by the bank employed by the buyer which authorizes the bearer(the supplier or seller)to draw a stated amount of money from the issuing bank.信用证(L/C)使用时完全由买方承担。它是由受雇于买方的银行发行的一封信，授权信用证的持有者从发信银行提取指定额度的资金。
16.A logistics center consists of a series of integrated logistic activities, processes, equipments, and information network.物流中心由一系列的综合物流活动，过程，设备，信息网络组成。
17.Third Party Logistics refers to specialized logistics service providers that provide specific services for suppliers and customers.第三方物流是指专业化的物流服务提供商，为供应商和客户提供具体服务。
18.Customized logistics refer to a logistic system or process specifically designed to cater to an individual customer’s requirements and needs.定制物流是指一个专门设计的物流系统或过程，可迎合个别客户的要求和需要。
19.Logistics alliance refers to the long term cooperation and business relationship between logistics supplier and customers.物流联盟是指物流供应商和客户之间的长期合作和业务关系。
20.Bridge transport refers to containers transported by railway using the bridges that link both ends separated by river or oceans.桥运输是指借助于链接被河流或海洋隔开的两端的桥梁，通过铁路运输的集装箱。21.International logistics is a result of international commercial activities, cross border investment, and importing and exporting activities.国际物流是国际商业活动、跨境投资、进口和出口活动的结果。
22.Time value in logistics refers to the differences in value of the same goods at different time.物流的时间价值是指同一商品在不同时间的价值差异。
23.Location value in logistics refers to the differences in value of the same goods in different locations.物流的空间价值是指同一商品在不同地点的价值差异。
24.Logistics vehicles include ships, trucks, trains and aircrafts used in the logistics process.物流运输工具包括在物流过程中使用的船只、卡车、火车和飞机。
25.The main differences between the traditional and modern logistic systems are the usage of containers and information technologies.传统与现代物流系统的主要区别是对集装箱和信息技术的使用。
26.Integrated logistics management was the early stage of Supply Chain Management(SCM).综合物流管理是供应链管理（SCM）的早期阶段。
27.International transport is the major part in international logistics.国际运输是国际物流的重要组成部分。
28.Third Party Logistics assist the execution of logistic activities.第三方物流协助物流活动的执行。
29.Fourth Party Logistics is the planner and manager for logistics network, while Third Party Logistics is the supplier of logistics service, like transport and storage.第四方物流是物流网络策划者和管理者，而第三方物流是物流服务供应商，如运输和储存。
30.Supply Chain is the relationship between suppliers and customers.In the supply chain, suppliers rank before buyer, seller and customers.供应链是供应商与客户的关系。在供应链中，供应商排名在买方、卖方和客户之前。
31.Logistics activities, especially transportation have a major impact on the environment.物流活动，特别是运输对环境有重大影响。
32.Logistics is a combination of applied technology and business management.物流是应用技术和业务管理的结合。33.Insurance is very important to logistics because of the potential hazards and dangers in the process, such as fire, theft, handling damage and even the natural disasters.对物流而言，保险非常重要，因为物流过程中有潜在危害和危险，如火灾、盗窃、损坏，甚至自然灾害。
34.Costs for logistics are similar to all other businesses and include fixed cost, variable cost and management cost.物流成本与所有其他商业活动类似，包括固定成本、可变成本和管理成本。
35.The process to handle export and import with the international customs is the customs declaration.与国际海关处理出口和进口的过程即报关。
36.Customer services link all logistics activities effectively.客户服务有效地连接所有的物流活动。
37.The bank is a third party in the payment process between the buyers and sellers.银行是在买家和卖家之间付款过程的第三方。
38.Letter of Credit is issued by the buyer’s bank for the importer’s benefits.信用证由买方银行以进口商的名义签发。
39.Industry competition leads to more efforts to improve customer service.行业竞争导致了更多努力，以改善客户服务。
40.For small and medium-sized companies, logistics management is still largely decentralized.对于小型和中型公司，物流管理在很大程度上仍是分散的。
41.Customer service is specially set up to provide services to handle and inquiry and respond to demands from customers.客户服务是专门设立提供服务，以处理、询问和响应来自客户的需求。
42.Safety is always the top concern for warehouses to handle goods.安全始终是仓库货物处理最关心的问题。
43.Logistics information refers general logistics knowledge, materials, images, data and documentation.物流信息是指一般的物流知识、资料、图像、数据和文件。
44.Most large companies locate in the Central Business District of a city.大多数大型公司位于一个城市的中央商务区。
45.In a bull market, market prices for most goods will continuously go up.在牛市中，大多数商品市场价格将不断上升。
46.The payment of most global transactions is carried out in the form of letter of credit.大多数全球交易的付款采用信用证的形式。
47.Distribution processing value is the value added by changing the length, thickness and package of goods.配送加工价值是通过改变货物的长度、厚度和包装产生的增值。
48.Communication links the entire logistics process with customers.通信将整个物流过程与客户连接。
49.Demand forecasting helps managers to use their resources effectively.需求预测可以帮助管理者有效地利用其资源。
50.The process to operate and manage logistics is logistics control activities.操作和管理物流的过程就是物流控制活动。
51.Supply logistics is the procedure in which orders are taken from customers and purchases are delivered to the warehouse belonged of the customers.供应物流是一种程序，在其中，订单从客户获取，购买的物品则被配送到客户所属的仓库。
52.Distribution processing is different from a manufacturing process.流通加工不同于制造过程。
53.Distribution logistics is the delivery of process in which final products are delivered from sellers to buyers.配送物流是最终产品从卖方交付给买家的运送过程。
二、储存功能：
1.Storage is a process in which goods are stored, protected and managed.存储是货物的储存，保护和管理过程。
2.Every manufacturer and wholesaler need inventory.每个制造商和批发商都需要存货。
3.Fixed Quantity System(FQS)is more accurate and convenient than Fixed Interval System(FIS).定量订货方式比定期订货方式更准确、更方便。
4.“Twenty-Eighty ” analysis method is the same as ABC classification.“20--80”分析法与ABC分类法相同。
5.Zero Inventory is guaranteed by the full market supply and Just-In-Time(JIT).充分的市场供应和JIT管理可以保证零库存。
6.Procurement is the process in which materials for production are ordered from customers.采购是客户订购生产资料的过程。
7.Supply chain links all suppliers and customers along a system in which products and services are delivered.供应链通过一个产品和服务交付系统，连接所有供应商和客户。
8.Cycle stock is the maximum inventory based on the maximum needs.周转库存是基于最大需求的最大库存。
9.Safe stock refers to minimum inventory level given the forecasted market demand.安全库存是指基于预测市场需求的最低库存水平。
10.The average time when the goods is moved in and out of warehouse is inventory cycle time.物品移入和移出仓库的平均时间是库存周转时间。
11.Inventory control is the method to keep the best inventory level and position with the minimum cost to satisfy the demand.库存控制是保持最佳库存水平和位置的方法，以最低成本满足需求。
12.When the inventory is reduced to a specific level, purchase for new parts and material will start.It is called the Order Point System.当库存减少到一个特定水平，新零部件和原材料采购将启动。这就是所谓的订货点制度。
13.Zero stock is means zero inventory.零库存是指零存货。
14.Inspection is the operation to check the quantity, quality and package of the goods according to the contract and specific standards.检验是按合同和具体标准，检查货物的数量、质量和包装。
15.Goods that are stored in warehouses for distribution and sales are called inventory.存放在仓库待配送和销售的货物被称为库存。
16.Warehouse rental represent a very significant proportion of total warehouse cost.仓库租金占总仓储成本的一个非常重要的比例。17.The size of warehouses are determined by the needs of the customer groups, such as their inventory level planning.仓库大小取决于客户群体的需要，如他们的库存水平规划。
18.Commodity inspection is the process in which exported and imported goods are examined for their quantity, quality, package, place of production, safety and hygiene conditions.商检是检查进出口商品的数量、质量、包装、生产、安全和卫生条件的过程。
19.Electronic Order System(EOS)is responsible for taking customer orders and the information sharing between companies connected to the transactions.电子订货系统（EOS）负责获取客户订单、负责交易有关的公司之间的信息交流。
20.The purpose of Just-In-Time(JIT)is to meet demand instantly, with perfect quality and punctuality.JIT的目的是及时满足需求，并质量完善和守时。
21.Goods handling may account for only 50% of the direct labor cost in warehouse and 70% in distribution center.在仓库，搬运货物只占50％的直接劳动力成本，在配送中心，则占70％。
22.Zero stock is the best way for inventory control.零库存是库存控制的最佳途径。
三、运输功能：
1.Liner transport has three specific components: fixed ports, fixed routes and announcing shipping time in advance.班轮运输有三个具体内容：固定港口，固定航线，并提前宣布发船时间。
2.Shipping by chartering is used for transporting low value goods.租船航运用于输送低价值货物。
3.The broker company in ocean transportation is called shipping agency.在海洋运输中，经纪公司被称为船务代理。
4.Air freight costs 5 times more than transportation by trucks and 20 times more than by rail.But it is more reliable, punctual and predictable under normal operating condition.空运费用是卡车运输的5倍以上，是铁路的20倍，但在正常作业条件下，更可靠、准时和可预测。
5.Bulk container is used to load bulk cargo.散货集装箱用于装载散装货物。
6.Cargo is freight carried by a ship, an aircraft, or another vehicle, upon the agreement for the delivery of goods.货物是根据配送协议采用船只、飞机或其他工具运送的货品。
7.Tanker container is mainly used to transport oil and gas.油轮集装箱主要用于运输石油和天然气。
8.Deadhead means a vehicle, such as an aircraft and truck that transports no passengers or freight during a single trip.空回头车指如飞机和卡车的交通工具在单程中没有运输乘客或货物。
9.Back haul is the distance traveled from the delivery destination point back to the departure point.回程是从交货目的地回到出发点的距离。
10.Bill of Lading is a document title.提单是一个物权凭证。
11.Ocean Bill of Lading is a receipt for goods Ioaded in the ship.海运提单是船上装载货物的收据。
12.Shipper and carrier are two parties in a shipping contract.托运人和承运人是运输合同中的两方。
13.Usually, the buyer in the trading contract is consignee.通常，交易合约中的买方是收货人。
14.Liner sails in the fixed route between fixed ports and sends sailing information in advance.班轮在固定港口之间按固定航线航行，并提前发送信息。
15.Brokers are agents who coordinate shippers and carriers by providing timely information about rates, routes and service capabilities.经纪是代理，通过提供有关费率、路线和服务能力的及时信息，撮合托运人和承运人。
16.TEU and FEU both are containers which are used in ocean transportation frequently.TEU和FEU都是在海洋运输是经常使用的容器。
17.Bill of Lading is the evidence of the contract of carriage between carrier and shipper.提单是承运人和托运人之间运输合同的证据。
18.Seaway Bill is different from Ocean B/L.The Iatter is negotiable but the former is not.Seaway Bill与Ocean B/L不同，后者是可以转让的，前者不可。19.Transport agencies include air and surface freight forwarders, shippers’ associations and transport brokers.运输代理，包括空中和地面货运代理，船运协会和运输经纪人。
20.Freight forwarders purchase long distance service from water, rail, air even and truck carriers.货运代理购买水路、铁路、航空甚至和卡车的长途服务。
21.International Railway Bill can be used in land bridge transport.国际铁路法案可以用在陆桥运输。
22.Transportation using multiple transportation means is also called combined transport.使用多种运输方式的运输也被称为联运。
23.NVOCC is also a carrier because it can open B/L.无船承运人，也是一个承运人，因为它可以开立B/L。
24.Transportation creates location value in logistics.运输创造物流的位置（空间）价值。
25.Transport does not need to change packages of goods or stop in any place between the departure point and destination location.运输并不需要改变货物包装或停止在出发点和目的地之间的任何地方。
26.Door-to-door delivery refers to carrier picking up the goods from the shipper’s warehouse and delivers it to consignee’s warehouse.送货上门，是指承运人从托运人的仓库获取货物并把它送到收货人的仓库。
27.Containerization can speed up the logistics process, such as handling, loading and unloading, storing and transport.集装箱化可以加快物流过程，如搬运，装卸，贮存和运输。
28.Domestic intercity truck is the motor carrier service between the different cities domestically.国内城际卡车提供在国内不同城市的汽车运输服务。
29.A fleet is group of vehicles or ships owned or operated as a unit.船队是作为一个单位被拥有或操作的一组车辆或船。
30.Transportation is usually the biggest logistic costs for most companies.运输通常是大多数企业最大的物流成本。
31.Truck enjoys the great advantages in the transit time and frequency compared to other transportation means.与其他运输方式相比，卡车在中转时间和频率方面有很大优势。
32.The railroad represents the biggest usage in the land transport in China.在中国，铁路是陆路运输的最大使用形式。
33.There are three kinds of freight in transport: full-car load, Less-than-truck load and Container.有三种货物运输形式：整车运输，零担运输和集装箱。
34.Water transport can carry the greatest amount of goods for the longest distance with the lowest cost.水路运输可以最低的成本运送最大量的商品至最远距离。
35.Air transport has the distinct advantage in the terms of fast delivery and enjoy the lowest ratio of loss and damage.在快速配送、最低的损失和破坏比例方面，航空运输具有明显优势。
36.The most economic feasible products transported by pipeline are crude oil, natural gas and refined petroleum one.通过管道运输的最经济可行的产品是原油、天然气和成品油。
37.International transport is dominated by water carriers.It is used to transport more than 70% of the total trading volume in value and 95% by weight.国际运输以水运为主体，它运送总交易价值的70％和总重量的95％。
38.International transportation by trucks is limited between the joint border countries like US and Mexico or closely located WTO members like mainland China, Hong Kong and Macao.采用卡车进行国际运输限于联合边境国家之间，如美国和墨西哥；或者位置紧密的WTO成员之间，如中国大陆、香港和澳门。
39.Grouping small shipment into large ones is the primary method to lower cost per unit of weight in transportation.将小型运输组合成大型运输，是降低单位运输重量成本的主要方法。
40.Transportation decision is referred to the transportation models and carriers selected for delivery，vehicle routing, scheduling, and freight grouping.运输决策是指为配送、路线、调度和货运分组选择的运输模式和承运人。
41.Container logistics management is becoming a core strategy for large shipping company for its fast loading and unloading process, safe transportation and goods storage.集装箱物流管理正在成为大型航运企业的快速装卸过程、货物安全运输和储存的核心战略。42.The primary factor to influence transport cost is distance and competition.影响运输成本的主要因素是距离和竞争。
43.Containerization ensures quick transit between ships and other transport vehicles such as trucks and freight rail cars.集装箱化保证了货物在船舶和其他运输车辆如卡车和火车之间的快速中转。
四、物流信息管理：
1.Automated warehouse must be managed by information system.自动化立体仓库必须由信息系统管理。
2.The application of bar code is of primary importance in the Bar Code System.条码的应用在条码系统是至关重要的。
3.Bar code scanner is called bar code reader.条形码扫描仪被称为条码阅读器。
4.Firewall in the computer system is not a physical wall, but is a computer language to protect the network from invasion and damage.电脑系统的防火墙不是一个实体的墙，而是一个计算机语言，可防止网络入侵和破坏。
5.Virtual logistics is the management by computer technology and Internet.虚拟物流是利用计算机技术和网络管理。
6.Data Warehousing is virtual data system in computer technology． 数据仓库是计算机技术中的虚拟数据系统。
7.Using 13 digits, the bar code store the information of goods.条码使用13位数字存储商品信息。
8.Global Positioning System directs the mobile equipments, like trucks, ships and aircrafts by satellite tracking.全球定位系统通过卫星跟踪，指示移动设备如卡车、船舶和飞机。
9.The main application of E-selling is in B2B and B2C.电子商务的主要应用是B2B 和 B2C.10.B2E refers to Business to Employee and Business to Executives.B2E是指企业对员工和企业对管理人员。
11.In the logistics information system, EDI plays the most important role.在物流信息系统，电子数据交换起着至关重要的作用。
12.The logistics network is virtual network.物流网络是虚拟的网络。
五、配送：
1.Delivery refers to sending goods to the destination specified by buyers and collection of the transportation costs.发送货物交付，是指将货物运送至买方指定目的地并征收运输成本。
2.Joint Distribution refers to delivering goods for different shippers using the same vehicle by the most economic route.联合配送是指使用最经济的路线，同车交付不同托运人的货物。
3.Distribution is one of functions in logistics, which deliver goods to customers directly according to the order in the most economic way.配送是物流的职能之一，根据订单以最经济的方式将货物交付客户。
4.Distribution includes logistics activities related to the sales and delivery of goods.配送包括与销售和交付货物有关的物流活动。
5.Distribution center is a short-term storage center located close to a major market to facilitate the rapid processing of orders and shipment of goods to customers.配送中心是一个短期的仓储中心，位于靠近主要市场的位置，以便于向客户提供订单快速处理和货物装运。
6.The national distribution center is linked to the metropolitan’s outer expressway, providing easy access to and from key ports, roads and other distribution channels for importers.全国配送中心与大都市的外围高速公路连接在一起，为进口商提供主要港口、道路及其他分销渠道的方便进出通道。
7.The regional distribution center provides customized solution for supply chain management, warehousing and sea, air freight transport in the international logistics market.区域配送中心，提供个性化的供应链管理、仓储和国际物流市场的船运空运的解决方案。
8.The distribution centers focus on maximizing the profit impact of fulfilling customer delivery requirement and distribution processing.配送中心的重点在通过满足客户的交付需求和配送加工，使利益最大化。
六、包装功能：
1.Packaging performs two basic functions, marketing and delivery in logistics.包装执行两个基本功能，市场营销和物流配送。
2.The purpose of sales package is for sales and convenient use.销售包装的目的是为销售和使用带来方便。
3.In logistic and transportation process, it is very important to package the goods appropriately for protection and safety purposes.在物流和运输过程中，对货物进行适当包装以达到保护和安全目的非常重要。
4.Vacuum packaging is used to protect goods from deterioration or contamination, like food and medicine.真空包装是用来保护如食品和药品之类的货物免于变质或污染。
5.Palletizing refers to the process of loading goods in pallet.码垛是指在托盘装载货物的过程。
6.Palletizing is to load goods onto a pallet and wrap to form a handling and loading unit.码垛是将货物加载到一个托盘上并包装，以形成一个处理和运载单位。
7.The No.1 function of packaging is to protect goods.包装的第一位的功能是保护货物。
8.In marketing, the package also aims for promoting and advertising the attractiveness of goods to be sold.在市场营销中，包装的目的还在于提高和广告待售商品的吸引力。
七、物流设施、物流工具、物流操作：
1.The area for unloading goods in warehouse is receiving space.仓库中卸载货物的区域是收货区。
2.Forklift truck is very convenient equipment for loading and unloading goods.叉车是非常方便的装卸货物的设备。
3.Container is a large packaging box.集装箱是一个大包装箱。4.A twenty-foot Unit is called a standard container.一个二十英尺单位称为一个标准集装箱。
5.Yard is a warehouse without roof and wall for containers storage.堆场是一个没有屋顶和墙壁的集装箱存储仓库。
6.Stereoscopic warehouse has three parts: warehouse, high store shelf and stacker.立体仓库有三个部分：仓库，高货架和堆垛机。
7.Automatic Guided Vehicle(AGV)can move goods to a specific location without the help of rail.自动导引车（AGV）可以无需铁轨帮助移动货物到特定位置。
8.Conveyor can move the solid goods fluidly.输送带可以流畅地移动固体货物。
9.Full container ship is only used for goods to be transported in container.全集装箱船仅用于用集装箱运输的货物。
10.Customs broker is a company representing the customers to declare and store the goods.海关经纪公司是一家代表客户申报和储存货物的公司。
11.Cargo inspection is not only to examine the goods quantity, but also quality.货物检验不仅检验货物的数量，也检验质量。
12.Deconsolidation center is a logistics center where most inbound goods are in truck loads and most outbound goods are in small pieces.分货中心是一个物流中心，其中，大部分入境货物以整卡车装载，大部分出境货物一小块一小块的。
13.Deliver cycle is the time between acceptance of the order and delivery of the goods.交付周期是接受订单和交货之间的时间。
14.Factory price does not contain the cost of freight or distribution.工厂价格不包含运费或配送成本。
15.Less-than Container is the mode which can be used to ship goods for more than one shippers and consignees.零担集装箱是可用于为不止一个托运人和收货人运送货物的模式。
16.The station to transfer goods from one carrier to another is gateway.将货物从一个承运者转移至另一个承运者的站点称为门户。17.Boned warehouse is the place to store the goods imported or in transit, without paying duty under custom’s supervision.保税仓库是在海关监管下，无需付费存储进口或过境货物的地方。
18.Conveyors are used widely in the operations of warehouse and distribution center and form the basic handling device for a number of selection systems.输送机广泛用于仓库和配送中心的运作，并是形成大量选择系统的基本处理设备。
19.Dispatch area is the place where goods are stored and ready to be delivered.调度区是货物存放并随时可以交付的地方。
20.Rack is the same as goods shelves which are used to place stored goods in high density area.Rack货架与goods shelves货架一样，用于在高密度区域放置存货。
2l.Standardized containers are storage and transportation equipments that may load the cargo of 16 to 26 tons or in 30 to 60 cubic meters.标准化集装箱是储存和运输设备，可装载16至26吨或者30至60立方米的货物。
八、逆向物流（Reverse Logistics)
1.Recycle logistics is the part of reverse logistics.回收物流是逆向物流的一部分。
2.Reverse logistics is the process to handle returned goods, recycle useful materials and dispose waste goods.逆向物流是处理退货、回收有用材料和处置废物的流程。
3.When the non-qualified goods are returned or from buyer to seller, we call it reverse logistics.当不合格品被退回或由买方给卖方，我们称之为逆向物流。
4.Green logistics is very important to the environmental protection.绿色物流对环境保护非常重要。
5.Scrap disposal is the part of reverse logistics.废料处理是逆向物流的一部分。
6.Recycle logistics is the process to sort, treat and collect the valuable parts from used products.回收物流是从使用过的产品中搜寻、处理和收集有用零件的过程。
7.Reverse logistics makes goods flow from customers to suppliers.逆向物流使货物从客户向供应商流动。
8.Averagely, retailers and manufacturers predict approximately 5％-10% of their merchandise will be returned.平均而言，零售商和制造商预测约5％-10％的商品将被退回。
九、其他
1.Saving or reducing expenditure in business operations is called cost control.储蓄或减少经营开支是所谓的成本控制。
2.If the goods is damaged or lost in the process of logistics, the shipper may claim to carrier.如果货物损坏或在物流过程中丢失，托运人可以向承运人索赔。
3.Tally is to count and inspect goods in logistics.理货即在物流中计数和检验货物。
4.Handling or carrying is the operation to move the goods horizontally.搬运是指水平移动货物的操作。
5.Loading and unloading may be the most frequent activities in logistics, but its related costs are hard to estimate.装卸是物流中最频繁的活动，但其相关成本很难估计。
6.Loading and unloading is the operation moving the goods by labor or equipment to the transported vehicles, storage places or other locations in the logistic process.装卸作业是由工人或设备将货物移动到运输车辆、贮存场所或物流过程中的其他地点。
7.CIF and FOB are two major terms in the international trade.CIF和FOB是国际贸易中的两个重要条款。
8.Virtual logistics is based on logistics network, but more computerized and systematized than logistics operation.虚拟物流基于物流网络，但比物流运作更计算机化、系统化。
9.MRP(Material Requirement Planning)is the management system to control the amount of material consumed and to reduce inventory in the manufacturing company.MRP（材料需求计划）是管理系统，用以控制消耗材料的数量和减少制造公司的库存。
10.ERP(Enterprise Resource Planning)is the management system to distribute all resources economically, while satisfying the demand of the market.ERP（企业资源计划）是管理系统，用以经济地分配所有资源，同时满足市场需求。
11.MRPll(Manufacturing Resouree Planning)is the system to control all elements, including inventory and procurement, cost and working capital, sales order and personnel level.MRPll是一个系统，用来控制所有元素，包括库存和采购，成本和周转资金，销售秩序和人员的水平。
12.Performance monitoring system is essential to the warehouse management.绩效监测系统对仓库管理是必不可少的。
13.The advantage of crane on a forklift truck is to lift and move heavy materials, but is can be rather inflexible.与叉车相比，起重机的优点是可以抬起和移动沉重的材料，但相对不太灵活。
14.The revolution of information started with the introduction of the personal computer, followed by the optical fiber network, the explosion of the Internet and the World Wide Web.信息革命来源于个人计算机的普及，及其后的光纤网络，因特网和万维网的爆炸性发展。
15.Internet assists market development, operational planning and management decisions in the logistics industry.互联网有助于物流业的市场发展，业务规划和管理决策。
16.Handling/carrying and loading/unloading are the most frequent activities in the logistics.搬运和装卸是物流中最频繁的活动。
17.Parts and service support are components of after sales service.零部件和服务支持是售后服务的组成部分。
18.Logistics information system can be made up by three parts: inputs by terminal, data managed by CPU, the outputs managed by optical fiber.物流信息系统可以由三个部分组成：终端输入，CPU管理的数据，光纤管理的输出。
19.Electronic commerce(EC)is the tool to be used to make deal between the seller and buyer by Internet in a paperless environment.电子商务（EC）是一种工具，用于使卖方和买方在无纸化环境下通过互联网络形成交易。
20.Electronic Data Interchange(EDI)refer to a computer-to-computer information sharing of business documents in a standard format.电子数据交换（EDI）是指商业文件的计算机到计算机信息交流的标准格式。
21.Virtual warehousing is not real logistics network but an information network based on warehouse management.虚拟仓储不是真正的物流网络，而是基于仓库管理的信息网络。
22.EDI is widely applied in the field of commerce with the legal effect.EDI广泛应用于商业领域，具有法律效力。
23.Data warehouse is a consolidated database maintained separately from different organizations’ production system databases.数据仓库是一个综合数据库，由不同组织的生产系统数据库分别维护。
24.Intranet is the internal network within an organization that promotes sharing of internal company related information, using similar technology as the Internet.内联网是指一个组织的内部网络，利用类似互联网的技术，旨在促进公司内部相关信息的共享。
25.The World Wide Web is the Internet system to allow users to browse from one Internet site to another and to inspect the information available without using complicated commands and protocols.万维网是互联网系统，使用户能够从一个互联网网站浏览到另一个，无需使用复杂的命令和协议检阅可得到的信息。
26.Container terminal connects sea and land, transfers container to and from ships.集装箱码头连接大海和陆地，转移集装箱上下船舶。
27.Distribution center is a large and highly automated multi-store building destined to receive goods from various suppliers, take orders, fill them in container efficiently, deliver goods to the customer as quickly and satisfyingly as possible.配送中心是一个庞大而高度自动化的多库建筑，定位于接受来自不同供应商的商品，接受订单，将商品高效地放入集装箱，将货物尽快和尽可能令人满意地送到客户。
一、研究背景
James于1890年最先提出自我概念理论，其后自我概念成为心理学研究的热点之一。自我概念是关于自己的特长、能力、外表和社会接受性方面的态度、情感和知识的自我知觉[1]，即个体把自己当成像其他事物一样的客观物体所作出的知觉和评价。自我概念形成于和周围世界互动的过程当中，由反映评价、社会比较和自我感觉三部分构成。
1976年，Shavelson等人提出了多维多层的自我概念模型，使自我概念理论由单维转向多维化，为自我概念实证研究提供重要的理论指导。在这个模型中，Shavelson第一次把一般自我概念划分为学业自我概念和非学业自我概念。学业自我概念是自我概念的子维度之一，即学生对其学业能力和学业成就的自我感知及自我评价，它包括与这种感知相关的整体自我价值感。[2]
Shavelson模型提出后受到研究者的广泛重视，以此为指导，Marsh于1983年编制的适用于不同年龄层次的自我描述问卷进一步推动了自我概念实证研究的重要发展。Marsh等人也进一步修订了Shavelson模型，特别是在1988年所作出的修订中，他们用学业语言和学业数学自我概念来代替学业自我概念，在学业语言自我概念中已包括了英语自我概念和外语自我概念等子维度。对于将英语作为第二外语学习的人来说，外语自我概念可以理解为英语自我概念。英语自我概念是个人对自己综合的英语语言能力的自我描述。[3]
研究表明，学业自我概念对学生的学习及其成就会产生多方面的影响。它不仅影响学习者执行任务的毅力、成功期望和成就归因，而且影响学习者对学校课程的选择和学业成绩。良好的英语自我概念对学生调节自己的英语学习活动，树立积极的学习态度，以及促进自己的英语成绩有十分重要的作用。研究学生的英语自我概念的发展，也有助于教师根据学生心理发展的特点进行有效的英语教学。
二、英语自我概念对英语阅读的作用
自我概念是个人对自己以及对自己在他人心目中地位的主观评价、意识和感知。人们做事，对自己的能力总有一个主观的评价，这种主观评价的高低会影响做事的积极性和敢于应对困难和挑战的决心。Lau等人和马冬梅的研究表明，英语自我概念作为一般自我概念下属的学业自我概念的一部分，它本身也具有多维性和层次性的特点，受到各子自我概念的制约与支配。[4]也就是说学习者的整体英语自我概念是在综合对听、说、读、写以及词汇和语法6个方面学业成就和学习能力的自我感知和评价的基础上构建并发展起来的。[5]
学生在英语阅读中所体现的自我概念就是对自己英语阅读能力的主观评价，以及能否阅读好文章的信心的主观判断和感知。不同程度的自我概念影响动机、态度、自信等情感因素是否对学习者产生积极的作用，也影响学习者在英语阅读时行为、策略的选择。对英语阅读自我感知和评价高的人大多能以轻松、自信、积极的心态完成阅读任务，并最终取得好的英语学习成绩。但如果学习者没有形成正面的英语阅读自我概念，很容易对英语阅读失去信心，表现出较高的焦虑，即使他具备与之相当的阅读水平也不能取得理想的阅读效果。因此英语阅读自我概念对学习者阅读过程中的作用不可低估。
三、如何促进积极英语阅读自我概念的形成
作为大学英语教师，我们应当意识到积极的心能力量在学生的成才之路上是举足轻重的，我们应该知道仅仅向学生传授知识和培养技能是远远不够的。因为消极的自我概念如果不加干涉可能会对学生产生一生的影响，而积极的自我概念能使教师获得事半功倍的教学效果。那在英语阅读课堂上，我们应该如何转变学生的消极心态，促进学生建构积极的英语自我概念呢?
（一）创设良好的教学氛围
学习环境和心理氛围对于学习者自我概念的形成有着一定的影响。教师应努力为学生营造积极、愉快、宽松的课堂氛围，创设民主、和谐、平等的师生关系。在和睦的氛围中，学生更容易增加自我认同感，更容易表现自己。
在阅读课上，教师应尽量以学生为中心，赋予学生平等的话语权，使学生可以自由发表自己对文章的见解和看法，而不是把自己的思想、观点强加到学生身上，从而使学生真正参与到阅读、理解文章的过程中，体验成功的感觉。成功经验的累积在技能累积的同时，提高了学生的自信心，使得他们有勇气去克服以后的困难，也使他们感受到了学习英语的乐趣。
另外，教师可给予学生更多的机会互相交流、分享他们的阅读成果。一方面，学生之间知识水平较相近，反而会填补教师可能忽略的空白。另一方面，学生通过与他人的比较发现自己身上的长处，从而构建积极的英语自我概念。
（二）进行归因训练
归因是个体对于某一事件成功或失败的原因加以分析，以得到一个合理解释的过程。Weiner发现不同动机的人对于成功与失败的解释不一样。他将成就归因分为能力、努力、任务难度及运气四种因素。英语阅读能力强的学生通常会将失败归因为努力因素，因此会使他产生羞愧感并期望未来能成功进而奋发努力。英语阅读能力弱的学生则易将失败归诸能力因素，因此会使个人责任感较小，对成功的期望较低，并较容易放弃努力。自我归因是自我概念形成的重要基础。因此在阅读教学中，教师应该引导学生更多地将失败归因于不够努力、不合理的学习策略和欠缺运气等，而将成功归因于自身的能力。
另外，教师应与学生一起分析他们的英语学习过程，找出阅读成绩不理想的真正原因。比如，许多阅读能力差的学生认为自己的词汇量太小所以很难完成阅读任务，因此在阅读训练的时候即使碰到的生词并不影响文章理解或者可以通过阅读技巧来猜测词义，他们也会不断给自己这样的心理暗示从而影响最终的成绩。对于这样的学生，教师应给予干预措施，一方面指导他们如何有效地扩充词汇量，另一方面辅助他们认识并运用各种阅读策略。对于一些词汇量及语法规则掌握得比较好、阅读成绩却不理想的学生，教师应帮助他们分析原因，让他们体会到只要通过正确的学习策略和努力，就能获得成功，从而逐步建立起积极的英语阅读自我概念。
（三）发挥积极的评价作用
在英语学习过程中，要想让英语阅读自我概念水平低的学习者发生正向改变，很大程度要依赖重要他人(老师、父母、朋友和同学)的肯定的评价和帮助，因为受到正面的评价，在自我评价上变得较为积极正向。[6]在阅读课堂上，教师要经常鼓励和赞扬学生，让学生发现自己的长处，体会到成功的喜悦，这样学生会在以后的阅读任务中继续发扬自己的优点，为再次成功而努力，因而提升积极的英语自我概念。教师对于学生出现的错误要给予正确的对待，若是过度纠正而不是为学生提供积极的反馈，学生就会丧失信心，产生消极的自我概念，以致他们不敢接受挑战，并且总是试图避免多做阅读练习少犯错，这会对他们的成绩产生非常负面的影响。
同时，教师也要引导学生正确、客观地评价自己。不能只看到自己和别人的差距，也要看到自己同之前相比的进步之处，认识到英语阅读也是一个循序渐进的过程。对于自己所犯的错误不应过分自责，要通过错误总结积累经验教训，逐步建立积极的英语自我概念。
四、结语
阅读是语言输入的一种主要方式，也是提高英语综合能力的基础。英语综合能力和应用能力的提高是建立在大量的语言输入，尤其是大量的阅读的基础之上的。阅读能力在任何英语考试中都是重要的考查内容。英语自我概念形成于英语学习的过程中，也与英语学习紧密相关。因此，作为大学英语教师，一定要在英语阅读教学中注重提升学生的英语自我概念，以提高他们的英语阅读能力。
摘要：自我概念是近十多年来才在我国外语界兴起的研究课题,大量研究表明,英语学习者的英语自我概念对英语学习的作用和影响非常大。英语自我概念同样也是影响英语阅读的重要情感因素,在此基础之上,本文提出了如何通过在英语阅读教学中提升学生的英语自我概念,以促进学生阅读能力的提高。
关键词：英语阅读教学,英语自我概念,提升
参考文献
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[2]Byrne,B.M.Academic self-concept:Its structure,mea-surement,and relation to academic achievement.In Bracken,B.A.(Ed.)Handbook of self-concept:Developmental,social,and clini-cal considerations.New York:John Wiley&Sons,Inc.,1996.
[3]王初明,周保国.中国学生英语学习自我概念研究[M].上海:上海外语教育出版社,2008.
[4]Lau,I.,Yeung,Jin,P.&Low,R.Toward hierarchial,mul-tidimentional English self-concept.Journal of Educational Psy-chology,1999,(91):747-755.
[5]马冬梅.中国英语专业大学生英语自我概念的结构和特点[D].广东外语外贸大学,2003.
英语语法术语汇总（中英对照）
英语语法术语（中英对照）语法 grammar 句法 syntax 词法 morphology 句子 sentence 从句 clause 词组 phrase 词类 part of speech 单词 word 实词 notional word 虚词 structural word 单纯词 simple word 派生词 derivative 复合词 compound 词性 part of speech 名词 noun 专有名词 proper noun 普通名词 common noun 可数名词 countable noun 不可数名词 uncountable noun 抽象名词 abstract noun 具体名词 concret noun 物质名词 material noun 集体名词 collective noun 个体名词 individual noun 介词 preposition 连词 conjunction 动词 verb 主动词 main verb 及物动词 transitive verb 不及物动词 intransitive verb 系动词 link verb 助动词 auxiliary verb 情态动词 modal verb 规则动词 regular verb 不规则动词 irregular verb 短语动词 phrasal verb 限定动词 finite verb 非限定动词 infinite verb 使役动词 causative verb 感官动词 verb of senses 动态动词 event verb 静态动词 state verb 感叹词 exclamation 形容词 adjective 原级 positive 比较级 comparative 最高级 superalative 副词 adverb 方式副词 adverb of manner 程度副词 adverb of degree 时间副词 adverb of time 地点副词 adverb of place 修饰性副词 adjunct 连接性副词 conjunct 疑问副词 interogative adverb 关系副词 relative adverb 代词 pronoun 人称代词 personal pronoun 物主代词 possesive pronoun 反身代词 reflexive pronoun 相互代词 reciprocal pronoun 指示代词 demonstrative pronoun 疑问代词 interrogative pronoun 关系代词 relative pronoun 不定代词 indefinite pronoun 物主代词 possecive pronoun 名词性物主代词 nominal possesive prnoun 形容词性物主代词 adjectival possesive pronoun 冠词 article 定冠词 definite article 不定冠词 indefinite article 数词 numeral 基数词 cardinal numeral 序数词 ordinal numeral 分数词 fractional numeral 形式 form 单数形式 singular form 复数形式 plural form 限定动词 finite verb form 非限定动词 non-finite verb form 原形 base form
从句 clause 从属句 subordinate clause 并列句 coordinate clause 名词从句 nominal clause 定语从句 attributive clause 状语从句 adverbial clause 宾语从句 object clause 主语从句 subject clause 同位语从句 appositive clause 时间状语从句 adverbial clause of time 地点状语从句 adverbial clause of place 方式状语从句 adverbial clause of manner 让步状语从句 adverbial clause of concession 原因状语从句 adverbial clause of cause 结果状语从句 adverbial clause of result 目的状语从句 adverbial clause of purpose 条件状语从句 adverbial clause of condition 真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of real condition 非真实条件状语从句 adverbial clause of unreal condition 含蓄条件句 adverbial clause of implied condition 错综条件句 adverbial clause of mixed condition 句子 sentence 简单句 simple sentence 并列句 compound sentence 复合句 complex sentence 并列复合句 compound complex sentence 陈述句 declarative sentence 疑问句 interrogative sentence 一般疑问句 general question 特殊疑问句 special question 选择疑问句 alternative question 附加疑问句 tag question 反义疑问句 disjunctive question 修辞疑问句 rhetorical question 感叹疑问句 exclamatory question 存在句 existential sentence 肯定句 positive sentence 基本句型 basic sentence pattern 否定句 negative sentence 祈使句 imperative sentence 省略句 elliptical sentence 感叹句 exclamatory sentence 句子成分 members of sentences 主语 subject 谓语 predicate 宾语 object 双宾语 dual object 直接宾语 direct object 间接宾语 indirect object 复合宾语 complex object 同源宾语 cognate object 补语 complement 主补 subject complement 宾补 object complement 表语 predicative 定语 attribute 同位语 appositive 状语 adverbial 句法关系 syntactic relationship 并列 coordinate 从属 subordination 修饰 modification 前置修饰 pre-modification 后置修饰 post-modification 限制 restriction 双重限制 double-restriction 非限制 non-restriction 数 number 单数形式 singular form 复数形式 plural form 规则形式 regular form 不规则形式 irregular form 格 case 普通格 common case 所有格 possessive case 主格 nominative case 宾格 objective case 性 gender 阳性 masculine 阴性 feminine 通性 common 中性 neuter 人称 person 第一人称 first person 第二人称 second person 第三人称 third person
教案中常用的词语 单元备课:第一课教案
1.教学内容
2.教学目标
(1)学习下列单词和词组
(2)学习下列句型
(3)学习课文
理解课文
正确朗读课文
复述课文
背诵课文
(4)就课文问答
(5)学习下列结构
名词复数形式
现在进行时态
被动语态
3.时间分配
(1)第一课时
(2)第二课时
(3)第三课时
(4)第四课时
4.教具
(1)录音机
(2)图片
课时备课:第一课时教案
1.教学内容
2.教学目的和要求
(1)学习下列单词和词组
(2)学习句型……
(3)学习语言点
3.教学重难点 4.教学要点
(1)单词
(2)词组
(3)语言点
5.语法结构
6.教学步骤
(一)组织教学
1.师生问好
2.点名
3.值日报告
4.唱歌
How to write a teaching plan in English?
Words and expressions often used in a teaching plan Teaching plan for Lesson One
Teaching contents Teaching aims
Learn the following words and expressions Learn the following patterns Learn the text Understand the text Read the text aloud correctly Retell the text Recite the text
Ask and answer questions about the text Learn the following structure The plural forms of nouns The present continuous tense The passive voice Allocation(of time)The 1st period The 2nd period The 3rd period The 4th period Teaching aids A recorder Pictures
Teaching plan for Period One Teaching contents
Teaching aims and demands
Learn the following words and expressions Learn the pattern “……” Learn language points Main and difficult points Teaching points New words Phrases Language points Grammar points Teaching procedures Preparation
Greeting Call the roll Duty report Sing a song 5.交代教学目的(二)复习检查
1.复习单词：
(1)看英文写中文(小条法)(2)听英文写中文
(3)听英文写英中文
(4)听中文写英文
(5)看中文写英文(小条法)2.复习句型和语法：
(1)填空
(2)选择答案
(3)用所给单词和词组造句
(4)汉译英
3.复习对话
(1)快速连锁问答
(2)快速还原翻译
(3)两两对话
(4)连珠炮式提问
(5)快速给答案
(6)看图问答
4.复习阅读
(1)填空式默写
(2)看图复述
(三)导入新课
1.教生词
2.导入对话
3.导入语法
4.导入阅读
5.口头介绍课文
6.听录音并逐句重复课文
7.表演对话
(四)操练
1.机械操练(句型)(1)肯否问答句型变换练习
(2)替换词练习
(3)还原翻译法操练
2.有意义操练(问答)(1)根据实景问答
(2)根据图片和简笔画问答
3.交际性操练
(1)信息沟活动
(2)角色表演
Announce the aims of the period Revision
Review the new words/ Have a spelling check
Write down the Chinese meaning of the words on a piece of paper Listen and write down the Chinese meaning of the words Listen and write down the words and their Chinese meanings Listen to the Chinese meanings and write down the words Write down the English and the Chinese meanings of the words on a piece of paper
Review the patterns and the grammar points Fill in the blanks Choose the right answers
Make sentences with the words and expressions given Translate from Chinese into English Review the dialogues Chain drill
Quick translation from Chinese into English Pair work
Question bombardment
Give the answers to problems quickly Ask and answer questions about the pictures Review the readings
Fill in the missing words of the text Retell the text according to the pictures Presentation(of the new material)
Presentation of the new words
Presentation of the dialogues
Presentation of the grammar points Presentation of the reading material Oral introduction of the text
Listen to the tape and repeat the text sentence by sentence Act out the dialogue Drill
Mechanical drill(controlled)
Give the affirmative form, negative form, question form and the short answer of the sentence
Substitution drills Quick oral practice
Meaningful drill(semi-controlled)
Ask and answer questions according to real situation
Ask and answer questions according to pictures and stick drawings Communicative drill(uncontrolled)information gap activities role play(3)游戏
play a game
Make up dialogues and do pair work
Consolidation, summary and assignment of homework Consolidation Summary
Assignment of homework Review the new words Prepare the pair work Recite the text
Do Exercise 3 in the Exercise Book Preview the text to be learned Blackboard plan(4)自编两两对话(五)巩固总结和布置作业
1.巩固
2.总结
3.布置作业
(1)复习词汇
(2)准备两两对话
(3)背诵课文
(4)做练习册中的练习三
(5)预习课文
(六)板书设计
1.学生特点：
本校四年级学生对学习英语有一定的兴趣，好胜心强，较易兴奋。无意注意还占较大优势，注意力易分散。缺乏正确的听、记习惯，所以遗忘率也高。适宜多采用动觉和听觉学习方式。2.教学要求：
1)在学习本课单词拼读、对话等知识的过程中，使学生初步学习掌握拼写单词的方法；陈述向一般疑问句的转换规律。
2)培养学生正确的听、记习惯。
Materials may be grouped in several ways.Scientists often classify materials by their state: solid, liquid, or gas.They also separate them into organic(once living)and inorganic(never living)materials.材料可以按多种方法分类。科学家常根据状态将材料分为：固体、液体或气体。他们也把材料分为有机材料(曾经有生命的)和无机材料(从未有生命的)。
For industrial purposes, materials are divided into engineering materials or nonengineering materials.Engineering materials are those used in manufacture and become parts of products.就工业效用而言，材料被分为工程材料和非工程材料。那些用于加工制造并成为产品组成部分的就是工程材料。
Nonengineering materials are the chemicals, fuels, lubricants, and other materials used in the manufacturing process, which do not become part of the product.非工程材料则是化学品、燃料、润滑剂以及其它用于加工制造过程但不成为产品组成部分的材料。
Engineering materials may be further subdivided into: ①Metal ②Ceramics ③Composite ④Polymers, etc.工程材料还能进一步细分为：①金属材料②陶瓷材料③复合材料 ④聚合材料，等等。
Metals and Metal Alloys 金属和金属合金
Metals are elements that generally have good electrical and thermal conductivity.Many metals have high strength, high stiffness, and have good ductility.金属就是通常具有良好导电性和导热性的元素。许多金属具有高强度、高硬度以及良好的延展性。
Some metals, such as iron, cobalt and nickel, are magnetic.At low temperatures, some
metals
and
intermetallic
compounds
become superconductors.某些金属能被磁化，例如铁、钴和镍。在极低的温度下，某些金属和金属化合物能转变成超导体。
What is the difference between an alloy and a pure metal? Pure metals are elements which come from a particular area of the periodic table.Examples of pure metals include copper in electrical wires and aluminum in cooking foil and beverage cans.合金与纯金属的区别是什么？纯金属是在元素周期表中占据特定位置的元素。
例如电线中的铜和制造烹饪箔及饮料罐的铝。
Alloys contain more than one metallic element.Their properties can be changed by changing the elements present in the alloy.Examples of metal alloys include stainless steel which is an alloy of iron, nickel, and chromium;and gold jewelry which usually contains an alloy of gold and nickel.合金包含不止一种金属元素。合金的性质能通过改变其中存在的元素而改变。金属合金的例子有：不锈钢是一种铁、镍、铬的合金，以及金饰品通常含有金镍合金。
Why are metals and alloys used? Many metals and alloys have high densities and are used in applications which require a high mass-to-volume ratio.为什么要使用金属和合金？许多金属和合金具有高密度，因此被用在需要较高质量体积比的场合。
Some metal alloys, such as those based on aluminum, have low densities and are used in aerospace applications for fuel economy.Many alloys also have high fracture toughness, which means they can withstand impact and are durable.某些金属合金，例如铝基合金，其密度低，可用于航空航天以节约燃料。许多合金还具有高断裂韧性，这意味着它们能经得起冲击并且是耐用的
What are some important properties of metals?
Density is defined as a material’s mass divided by its volume.Most metals have relatively high densities, especially compared to polymers.金属有哪些重要特性？
密度定义为材料的质量与其体积之比。大多数金属密度相对较高，尤其是和聚合物相比较而言。
Materials with high densities often contain atoms with high atomic numbers, such as gold or lead.However, some metals such as aluminum or magnesium have low densities, and are used in applications that require other metallic properties but also require low weight.高密度材料通常由较大原子序数原子构成，例如金和铅。然而，诸如铝和镁之类的一些金属则具有低密度，并被用于既需要金属特性又要求重量轻的场合。
Fracture toughness can be described as a material’s ability to avoid fracture, especially when a flaw is introduced.Metals can generally contain nicks and dents without weakening very much, and are impact resistant.A football player counts on this when he trusts that his facemask won’t shatter.断裂韧性可以描述为材料防止断裂特别是出现缺陷时不断裂的能力。金属一般能在有缺口和凹痕的情况下不显著削弱，并且能抵抗冲击。橄榄球运动员据此相信他的面罩不会裂成碎片。
Plastic deformation is the ability of bend or deform before breaking.As engineers, we usually design materials so that they don’t deform under normal conditions.You don’t want your car to lean to the east after a strong west wind.塑性变形就是在断裂前弯曲或变形的能力。作为工程师，设计时通常要使材料在正常条件下不变形。没有人愿意一阵强烈的西风过后自己的汽车向东倾斜。
However, sometimes we can take advantage of plastic deformation.The crumple zones in a car absorb energy by undergoing plastic deformation before they break.然而，有时我们也能利用塑性变形。汽车上压皱的区域在它们断裂前通过经历塑性变形来吸收能量。
The atomic bonding of metals also affects their properties.In metals, the outer valence electrons are shared among all atoms, and are free to travel everywhere.Since electrons conduct heat and electricity, metals make good cooking pans and electrical wires.金属的原子连结对它们的特性也有影响。在金属内部，原子的外层阶电子由所有原子共享并能到处自由移动。由于电子能导热和导电，所以用金属可以制造好的烹饪锅和电线。
It is impossible to see through metals, since these valence electrons absorb any photons of light which reach the metal.No photons pass through.因为这些阶电子吸收到达金属的光子，所以透过金属不可能看得见。没有光子
能通过金属。
Alloys are compounds consisting of more than one metal.Adding other metals can affect the density, strength, fracture toughness, plastic deformation, electrical conductivity and environmental degradation.合金是由一种以上金属组成的混合物。加一些其它金属能影响密度、强度、断裂韧性、塑性变形、导电性以及环境侵蚀。
For example, adding a small amount of iron to aluminum will make it stronger.Also, adding some chromium to steel will slow the rusting process, but will make it more brittle.例如，往铝里加少量铁可使其更强。同样，在钢里加一些铬能减缓它的生锈过程，但也将使它更脆。
Ceramics and Glasses 陶瓷和玻璃
A ceramic is often broadly defined as any inorganic nonmetallic material． By this definition, ceramic materials would also include glasses;however, many materials scientists add the stipulation that “ceramic” must also be crystalline.陶瓷通常被概括地定义为无机的非金属材料。照此定义，陶瓷材料也应包括玻璃；然而许多材料科学家添加了“陶瓷”必须同时是晶体物组成的约定。
A glass is an inorganic nonmetallic material that does not have a crystalline structure.Such materials are said to be amorphous.玻璃是没有晶体状结构的无机非金属材料。这种材料被称为非结晶质材料。Properties of Ceramics and Glasses Some of the useful properties of ceramics and glasses include high melting temperature, low density, high strength, stiffness, hardness, wear resistance, and corrosion resistance.陶瓷和玻璃的特性
高熔点、低密度、高强度、高刚度、高硬度、高耐磨性和抗腐蚀性是陶瓷和玻璃的一些有用特性。
Many ceramics are good electrical and thermal insulators.Some ceramics have special properties: some ceramics are magnetic materials;some are piezoelectric materials;and a few special ceramics are superconductors at very low temperatures.Ceramics and glasses have one major drawback: they are brittle.许多陶瓷都是电和热的良绝缘体。某些陶瓷还具有一些特殊性能：有些是磁性材料，有些是压电材料，还有些特殊陶瓷在极低温度下是超导体。陶瓷和玻璃都有一个主要的缺点：它们容易破碎。
Ceramics are not typically formed from the melt.This is because most
ceramics will crack extensively(i.e.form a powder)upon cooling from the liquid state.陶瓷一般不是由熔化形成的。因为大多数陶瓷在从液态冷却时将会完全破碎(即形成粉末)。
Hence, all the simple and efficient manufacturing techniques used for glass production such as casting and blowing, which involve the molten state, cannot be used for the production of crystalline ceramics.Instead, “sintering” or “firing” is the process typically used.因此，所有用于玻璃生产的简单有效的—诸如浇铸和吹制这些涉及熔化的技术都不能用于由晶体物组成的陶瓷的生产。作为替代，一般采用“烧结”或“焙烧”工艺。
In sintering, ceramic powders are processed into compacted shapes and then heated to temperatures just below the melting point.At such temperatures, the powders react internally to remove porosity and fully dense articles can be obtained.在烧结过程中，陶瓷粉末先挤压成型然后加热到略低于熔点温度。在这样的温度下，粉末内部起反应去除孔隙并得到十分致密的物品。
An optical fiber contains three layers: a core made of highly pure glass with a high refractive index for the light to travel, a middle layer of glass with a lower refractive index known as the cladding which protects the core
glass from scratches and other surface imperfections, and an out polymer jacket to protect the fiber from damage.光导纤维有三层：核心由高折射指数高纯光传输玻璃制成，中间层为低折射指数玻璃，是保护核心玻璃表面不被擦伤和完整性不被破坏的所谓覆层，外层是聚合物护套，用于保护光导纤维不受损。
In order for the core glass to have a higher refractive index than the cladding, the core glass is doped with a small, controlled amount of an impurity, or dopant, which causes light to travel slower, but does not absorb the light.为了使核心玻璃有比覆层大的折射指数，在其中掺入微小的、可控数量的能减缓光速而不会吸收光线的杂质或搀杂剂。
Because the refractive index of the core glass is greater than that of the cladding, light traveling in the core glass will remain in the core glass due to total internal reflection as long as the light strikes the core/cladding interface at an angle greater than the critical angle.由于核心玻璃的折射指数比覆层大，只要在全内反射过程中光线照射核心/覆层分界面的角度比临界角大，在核心玻璃中传送的光线将仍保留在核心玻璃中。
The total internal reflection phenomenon, as well as the high purity of the core glass, enables light to travel long distances with little loss of intensity.全内反射现象与核心玻璃的高纯度一样，使光线几乎无强度损耗传递长距离成为可能。
Composites 复合材料
Composites are formed from two or more types of materials.Examples include polymer/ceramic and metal/ceramic composites.Composites are used because overall properties of the composites are superior to those of the individual components.复合材料由两种或更多材料构成。例子有聚合物/陶瓷和金属/陶瓷复合材料。之所以使用复合材料是因为其全面性能优于组成部分单独的性能。
For example: polymer/ceramic composites have a greater modulus than the polymer component, but aren’t as brittle as ceramics.Two types of composites are: fiber-reinforced composites and particle-reinforced composites.例如：聚合物/陶瓷复合材料具有比聚合物成分更大的模量，但又不像陶瓷那样易碎。
复合材料有两种：纤维加强型复合材料和微粒加强型复合材料。Fiber-reinforced Composites Reinforcing fibers can be made of metals, ceramics, glasses, or polymers that have been turned into graphite and known as carbon fibers.Fibers
increase the modulus of the matrix material.纤维加强型复合材料
加强纤维可以是金属、陶瓷、玻璃或是已变成石墨的被称为碳纤维的聚合物。纤维能加强基材的模量。
The strong covalent bonds along the fiber’s length give them a very high modulus in this direction because to break or extend the fiber the bonds must also be broken or moved.沿着纤维长度有很强结合力的共价结合在这个方向上给予复合材料很高的模量，因为要损坏或拉伸纤维就必须破坏或移除这种结合。
Fibers are difficult to process into composites, making fiber-reinforced composites relatively expensive.把纤维放入复合材料较困难，这使得制造纤维加强型复合材料相对昂贵。Fiber-reinforced composites are used in some of the most advanced, and therefore most expensive sports equipment, such as a time-trial racing bicycle frame which consists of carbon fibers in a thermoset polymer matrix.纤维加强型复合材料用于某些最先进也是最昂贵的运动设备，例如计时赛竞赛用自行车骨架就是用含碳纤维的热固塑料基材制成的。
Body parts of race cars and some automobiles are composites made of glass fibers(or fiberglass)in a thermoset matrix.竞赛用汽车和某些机动车的车体部件是由含玻璃纤维(或玻璃丝)的热固塑料基材制成的。
Fibers have a very high modulus along their axis, but have a low modulus perpendicular to their axis.Fiber composite manufacturers often rotate layers of fibers to avoid directional variations in the modulus.纤维在沿着其轴向有很高的模量，但垂直于其轴向的模量却较低。纤维复合材料的制造者往往旋转纤维层以防模量产生方向变化。
Particle-reinforced composites Particles used for reinforcing include ceramics and glasses such as small mineral particles, metal particles such as aluminum, and amorphous materials, including polymers and carbon black.微粒加强型复合材料[番茄用户1] [番茄用户2] [番茄用户3] [番茄用户4] [番茄用户5] [番茄用户6] 用于加强的微粒包含了陶瓷和玻璃之类的矿物微粒，铝之类的金属微粒以及包括聚合物和碳黑的非结晶质微粒。
Particles are used to increase the modulus of the matrix, to decrease the permeability of the matrix, to decrease the ductility of the matrix.An example of particle-reinforced composites is an automobile tire which has carbon black particles in a matrix of polyisobutylene elastomeric polymer.微粒用于增加基材的模量、减少基材的渗透性和延展性。微粒加强型复合材料的一个例子是机动车胎，它就是在聚异丁烯人造橡胶聚合物基材中加入了碳黑微粒。
Polymers 聚合材料
A polymer has a repeating structure, usually based on a carbon backbone.The repeating structure results in large chainlike molecules.Polymers are useful because they are lightweight, corrosion resistant, easy to process at low temperatures and generally inexpensive.聚合物具有一般是基于碳链的重复结构。这种重复结构产生链状大分子。由于重量轻、耐腐蚀、容易在较低温度下加工并且通常较便宜，聚合物是很有用的。
Some important characteristics of polymers include their size(or molecular weight), softening and melting points, crystallinity, and structure.The mechanical properties of polymers generally include low strength and high toughness.Their strength is often improved using reinforced composite structures.聚合材料具有一些重要特性，包括尺寸(或分子量)、软化及熔化点、结晶度和结构。聚合材料的机械性能一般表现为低强度和高韧性。它们的强度通常可采用加强复合结构来改善。
Important Characteristics of Polymers Size.Single polymer molecules typically have molecular weights between 10,000 and 1,000,000g/mol—that can be more than 2,000 repeating units
depending on the polymer structure!聚合材料的重要特性
尺寸：单个聚合物分子一般分子量为10,000到1,000,000g/mol之间，具体取决于聚合物的结构—这可以比2,000个重复单元还多。
The mechanical properties of a polymer are significantly affected by the molecular weight, with better engineering properties at higher molecular weights.聚合物的分子量极大地影响其机械性能，分子量越大，工程性能也越好。Thermal transitions.The softening point(glass transition temperature)and the melting point of a polymer will determine which it will be suitable for applications.These temperatures usually determine the upper limit for which a polymer can be used.热转换性：聚合物的软化点(玻璃状转化温度)和熔化点决定了它是否适合应用。这些温度通常决定聚合物能否使用的上限。
For example, many industrially important polymers have glass transition temperatures near the boiling point of water(100℃, 212℉), and they are most useful for room temperature applications.Some specially engineered polymers can withstand temperatures as high as 300℃(572℉).例如，许多工业上的重要聚合物其玻璃状转化温度接近水的沸点(100℃，212℉)，它们被广泛用于室温下。而某些特别制造的聚合物能经受住高达300℃(572℉)的温度。
Crystallinity.Polymers can be crystalline or amorphous, but they usually have a combination of crystalline and amorphous structures(semi-crystalline).结晶度：聚合物可以是晶体状的或非结晶质的，但它们通常是晶体状和非结晶质结构的结合物(半晶体)。
Interchain interactions.The polymer chains can be free to slide past one another(thermo-plastic)or they can be connected to each other with crosslinks(thermoset or elastomer).Thermo-plastics can be reformed and recycled, while thermosets and elastomers are not reworkable.原子链间的相互作用：聚合物的原子链可以自由地彼此滑动(热可塑性)或通过交键互相连接(热固性或弹性)。热可塑性材料可以重新形成和循环使用，而热固性与弹性材料则是不能再使用的。
Intrachain structure.The chemical structure of the chains also has a tremendous effect on the properties.Depending on the structure the polymer may be hydrophilic or hydrophobic(likes or hates water), stiff or flexible, crystalline or amorphous, reactive or unreactive.链内结构：原子链的化学结构对性能也有很大影响。根据各自的结构不同，聚合物可以是亲水的或憎水的(喜欢或讨厌水)、硬的或软的、晶体状的或非结晶质的、易起反应的或不易起反应的。
The understanding of heat treatment is embraced by the broader study of metallurgy.Metallurgy is the physics, chemistry, and engineering related to metals from ore extraction to the final product.对热处理的理解包含于对冶金学较广泛的研究。冶金学是物理学、化学和涉及金属从矿石提炼到最后产物的工程学。
Heat treatment is the operation of heating and cooling a metal in its solid state to change its physical properties.According to the procedure used, steel can be hardened to resist cutting action and abrasion, or it can be softened to permit machining.热处理是将金属在固态加热和冷却以改变其物理性能的操作。按所采用的步骤，钢可以通过硬化来抵抗切削和磨损，也可以通过软化来允许机加工。
With the proper heat treatment internal stresses may be removed, grain size reduced, toughness increased, or a hard surface produced on a ductile interior.The analysis of the steel must be known because small percentages of certain elements, notably carbon, greatly affect the physical properties.使用合适的热处理可以去除内应力、细化晶粒、增加韧性或在柔软材料上覆盖坚硬的表面。因为某些元素(尤其是碳)的微小百分比极大地影响物理性能，所以必须知道对钢的分析。
Alloy steel owe their properties to the presence of one or more elements other than carbon, namely nickel, chromium, manganese, molybdenum, tungsten, silicon, vanadium, and copper.Because of their improved physical properties they are used commercially in many ways not possible with carbon steels.合金钢的性质取决于其所含有的除碳以外的一种或多种元素，如镍、铬、锰、钼、钨、硅、钒和铜。由于合金钢改善的物理性能，它们被大量使用在许多碳钢不适用的地方。
The following discussion applies principally to the heat treatment of ordinary commercial steels known as plain carbon steels.With this process the rate of cooling is the controlling factor, rapid cooling from above the critical range results in hard structure, whereas very slow cooling produces the opposite effect.下列讨论主要针对被称为普通碳钢的工业用钢而言。热处理时冷却速率是控制要素，从高于临界温度快速冷却导致坚硬的组织结构，而缓慢冷却则产生相反效果。
A Simplified Iron-carbon Diagram 简化铁碳状态图
If we focus only on the materials normally known as steels, a simplified diagram is often used.如果只把注意力集中于一般所说的钢上，经常要用到简化铁碳状态图。
Those portions of the iron-carbon diagram near the delta region and those above 2% carbon content are of little importance to the engineer and are deleted.A simplified diagram, such as the one in Fig.2.1, focuses on the eutectoid region and is quite useful in understanding the properties and processing of steel.铁碳状态图中靠近三角区和含碳量高于2%的那些部分对工程师而言不重要，因此将它们删除。如图2.1所示的简化铁碳状态图将焦点集中在共析区，这对理解钢的性能和处理是十分有用的。
The key transition described in this diagram is the decomposition of single-phase austenite(γ)to the two-phase ferrite plus carbide structure as temperature drops.在此图中描述的关键转变是单相奥氏体(γ)随着温度下降分解成两相铁素体加渗碳体组织结构。
Control of this reaction, which arises due to the drastically different carbon solubility of austenite and ferrite, enables a wide range of properties to be achieved through heat treatment.控制这一由于奥氏体和铁素体的碳溶解性完全不同而产生的反应，使得通过热处理能获得很大范围的特性。
To begin to understand these processes, consider a steel of the eutectoid composition, 0.77% carbon, being slow cooled along line x-x’ in
Fig.2.1.At the upper temperatures, only austenite is present, the 0.77% carbon being dissolved in solid solution with the iron.When the steel cools to 727℃(1341℉), several changes occur simultaneously.为了理解这些过程，考虑含碳量为0.77%的共析钢，沿着图2.1的x-x’线慢慢冷却。在较高温度时，只存在奥氏体，0.77%的碳溶解在铁里形成固溶体。当钢冷却到727℃(1341℉)时，将同时发生若干变化。
The iron wants to change from the FCC austenite structure to the BCC ferrite structure, but the ferrite can only contain 0.02% carbon in solid solution.铁需要从面心立方体奥氏体结构转变为体心立方体铁素体结构，但是铁素体只能容纳固溶体状态的0.02%的碳。
The rejected carbon forms the carbon-rich cementite intermetallic with composition Fe3C.In essence, the net reaction at the eutectoid is austenite 0.77%C→ferrite 0.02%C+cementite 6.67%C.被析出的碳与金属化合物Fe3C形成富碳的渗碳体。本质上，共析体的基本反应是奥氏体0.77%的碳→铁素体0.02%的碳+渗碳体6.67%的碳。
Since this chemical separation of the carbon component occurs entirely in the solid state, the resulting structure is a fine mechanical mixture of ferrite and cementite.Specimens prepared by polishing and etching in a weak solution of nitric acid and alcohol reveal the lamellar structure of
alternating plates that forms on slow cooling.由于这种碳成分的化学分离完全发生在固态中，产生的组织结构是一种细致的铁素体与渗碳体的机械混合物。通过打磨并在弱硝酸酒精溶液中蚀刻制备的样本显示出由缓慢冷却形成的交互层状的薄片结构。
This structure is composed of two distinct phases, but has its own set of characteristic properties and goes by the name pearlite, because of its resemblance to mother-of-pearl at low magnification.这种结构由两种截然不同的状态组成，但它本身具有一系列特性，且因与低倍数放大时的珠母层有类同之处而被称为珠光体。
Steels having less than the eutectoid amount of carbon(less than 0.77%)are known as hypo-eutectoid steels.Consider now the transformation of such a material represented by cooling along line y-y’ in Fig.2.1.含碳量少于共析体(低于0.77%)的钢称为亚共析钢。现在来看这种材料沿着图2.1中y-y’ 线冷却的转变情况。
At high temperatures, the material is entirely austenite, but upon cooling enters a region where the stable phases are ferrite and austenite.Tie-line and level-law calculations show that low-carbon ferrite nucleates and grows, leaving the remaining austenite richer in carbon.在较高温度时，这种材料全部是奥氏体，但随着冷却就进入到铁素体和奥氏体稳定状态的区域。由截线及杠杆定律分析可知，低碳铁素体成核并长大，剩下含碳
量高的奥氏体。
At 727℃(1341℉), the austenite is of eutectoid composition(0.77% carbon)and further cooling transforms the remaining austenite to pearlite.The resulting structure is a mixture of primary or pro-eutectoid ferrite(ferrite that formed above the eutectoid reaction)and regions of pearlite.在727℃(1341℉)时，奥氏体为共析组成(含碳量0.77%)，再冷却剩余的奥氏体就转化为珠光体。作为结果的组织结构是初步的共析铁素体(在共析反应前的铁素体)和部分珠光体的混合物。
Hypereutectoid steels are steels that contain greater than the eutectoid amount of carbon.When such steel cools, as shown in z-z’ of Fig.2.1 the process is similar to the hypo-eutectoid case, except that the primary or pro-eutectoid phase is now cementite instead of ferrite.过共析钢是含碳量大于共析量的钢。当这种钢冷却时，就像图2.1的z-z’线所示，除了初步的共析状态用渗碳体取代铁素体外，其余类似亚共析钢的情况。
As the carbon-rich phase forms, the remaining austenite decreases in carbon content, reaching the eutectoid composition at 727℃(1341℉).As before, any remaining austenite transforms to pearlite upon slow cooling through this temperature.随着富碳部分的形成，剩余奥氏体含碳量减少，在727℃(1341℉)时达到共析组
织。就像以前说的一样，当缓慢冷却到这温度时所有剩余奥氏体转化为珠光体。
It should be remembered that the transitions that have been described by the phase diagrams are for equilibrium conditions, which can be approximated by slow cooling.With slow heating, these transitions occur in the reverse manner.应该记住由状态图描述的这种转化只适合于通过缓慢冷却的近似平衡条件。如果缓慢加热，则以相反的方式发生这种转化。
However, when alloys are cooled rapidly, entirely different results may be obtained, because sufficient time is not provided for the normal phase reactions to occur, in such cases, the phase diagram is no longer a useful tool for engineering analysis.然而，当快速冷却合金时，可能得到完全不同的结果。因为没有足够的时间让正常的状态反应发生，在这种情况下对工程分析而言状态图不再是有用的工具。
Hardening 淬火
Hardening is the process of heating a piece of steel to a temperature within or above its critical range and then cooling it rapidly.淬火就是把钢件加热到或超过它的临界温度范围，然后使其快速冷却的过程。If the carbon content of the steel is known, the proper temperature to which the steel should be heated may be obtained by reference to the iron-iron
carbide phase diagram.However, if the composition of the steel is unknown, a little preliminary experimentation may be necessary to determine the range.如果钢的含碳量已知，钢件合适的加热温度可参考铁碳合金状态图得到。然而当钢的成分不知道时，则需做一些预备试验来确定其温度范围。
A good procedure to follow is to heat-quench a number of small specimens of the steel at various temperatures and observe the result, either by hardness testing or by microscopic examination.When the correct temperature is obtained, there will be a marked change in hardness and other properties.要遵循的合适步骤是将这种钢的一些小试件加热到不同的温度后淬火，再通过硬度试验或显微镜检查观测结果。一旦获得正确的温度，硬度和其它性能都将有明显的变化。
In any heat-treating operation the rate of heating is important.Heat flows from the exterior to the interior of steel at a definite rate.If the steel is heated too fast, the outside becomes hotter than the interior and uniform structure cannot be obtained.在任何热处理作业中，加热的速率都是重要的。热量以一定的速率从钢的外部传导到内部。如果钢被加热得太快，其外部比内部热就不能得到均匀的组织结构。
If a piece is irregular in shape, a slow rate is all the more essential to eliminate warping and cracking.The heavier the section, the longer must be the heating time to achieve uniform results.如果工件形状不规则，为了消除翘曲和开裂最根本的是加热速率要缓慢。截面越厚，加热的时间就要越长才能达到均匀的结果。
Even after the correct temperature has been reached, the piece should be held at that temperature for a sufficient period of time to permit its thickest section to attain a uniform temperature.即使加热到正确的温度后，工件也应在此温度下保持足够时间以让其最厚截面达到相同温度。
The hardness obtained from a given treatment depends on the quenching rate, the carbon content, and the work size.In alloy steels the kind and amount of alloying element influences only the hardenability(the ability of the workpiece to be hardened to depths)of the steel and does not affect the hardness except in unhardened or partially hardened steels.通过给定的热处理所得到的硬度取决于淬火速率、含碳量和工件尺寸。除了非淬硬钢或部分淬硬钢外，合金钢中合金元素的种类及含量仅影响钢的淬透性(工件被硬化到深层的能力)而不影响硬度。
Steel with low carbon content will not respond appreciably to hardening treatment.As the carbon content in steel increases up to around 0.60%, the possible hardness obtainable also increases.含碳量低的钢对淬火处理没有明显的反应。随着钢的含碳量增加到大约0.60%，可能得到的硬度也增加。
Above this point the hardness can be increased only slightly, because steels above the eutectoid point are made up entirely of pearlite and cementite in the annealed state.Pearlite responds best to heat-treating operations;and steel composed mostly of pearlite can be transformed into a hard steel.高于此点，由于超过共析点钢完全由珠光体和退火状态的渗碳体组成，硬度增加并不多。珠光体对热处理作业响应最好；基本由珠光体组成的钢能转化成硬质钢。
As the size of parts to be hardened increases, the surface hardness decreases somewhat even though all other conditions have remained the same.There is a limit to the rate of heat flow through steel.即使所有其它条件保持不变，随着要淬火的零件尺寸的增加其表面硬度也会有所下降。热量在钢中的传导速率是有限的。
No matter how cool the quenching medium may be, if the heat inside a large piece cannot escape faster than a certain critical rate, there is a definite limit to the inside hardness.However, brine or water quenching is capable of rapidly bringing the surface of the quenched part to its own temperature and maintaining it at or close to this temperature.无论淬火介质怎么冷，如果在大工件中的热量不能比特定的临界速率更快散发，那它内部硬度就会受到明确限制。然而盐水或水淬火能够将被淬零件的表面迅速冷却至本身温度并将其保持或接近此温度。
Under these circumstances there would always be some finite depth of surface hardening regardless of size.This is not true in oil quenching, when the surface temperature may be high during the critical stages of quenching.在这种情况下不管零件尺寸如何，其表面总归有一定深度被硬化。但油淬情况就不是如此，因为油淬时在淬火临界阶段零件表面的温度可能仍然很高。
Tempering 回火
Steel that has been hardened by rapid quenching is brittle and not suitable for most uses.By tempering or drawing, the hardness and brittleness may be reduced to the desired point for service conditions．
快速淬火硬化的钢是硬而易碎的，不适合大多数场合使用。通过回火，硬度和脆性可以降低到使用条件所需要的程度。
As these properties are reduced there is also a decrease in tensile strength and an increase in the ductility and toughness of the steel.The operation consists of reheating quench-hardened steel to some temperature below the critical range followed by any rate of cooling.随着这些性能的降低，拉伸强度也降低而钢的延展性和韧性则会提高。回火作业包括将淬硬钢重新加热到低于临界范围的某一温度然后以任意速率冷却。
Although this process softens steel, it differs considerably from annealing in that the process lends itself to close control of the physical properties and in most cases does not soften the steel to the extent that
annealing would.The final structure obtained from tempering a fully hardened steel is called tempered martensite.虽然这过程使钢软化，但它与退火是大不相同的，因为回火适合于严格控制物理性能并在大多数情况下不会把钢软化到退火那种程度。回火完全淬硬钢得到的最终组织结构被称为回火马氏体。
Tempering is possible because of the instability of the martensite, the principal constituent of hardened steel.Low-temperature draws, from 300℉ to 400℉(150℃~205℃), do not cause much decrease in hardness and are used principally to relieve internal strains.由于马氏体这一淬硬钢主要成分的不稳定性，使得回火成为可能。低温回火，300℉到400℉(150℃~205℃)，不会引起硬度下降很多，主要用于减少内部应变。
As the tempering temperatures are increased, the breakdown of the martensite takes place at a faster rate, and at about 600℉(315℃)the change to a structure called tempered martensite is very rapid.The tempering operation may be described as one of precipitation and agglomeration or coalescence of cementite.随着回火温度的提高，马氏体以较快的速率分解，并在大约600℉(315℃)迅速转变为被称为回火马氏体的结构。回火作业可以描述为渗碳体析出和凝聚或聚结的过程。
A substantial precipitation of cementite begins at 600℉(315℃), which
produces a decrease in hardness.Increasing the temperature causes coalescence of the carbides with continued decrease in hardness.渗碳体的大量析出开始于600℉(315℃)，这使硬度下降。温度的上升会使碳化物聚结而硬度继续降低。
In the process of tempering, some consideration should be given to time as well as to temperature.Although most of the softening action occurs in the first few minutes after the temperature is reached, there is some additional reduction in hardness if the temperature is maintained for a prolonged time.在回火过程中，不但要考虑温度而且要考虑时间。虽然大多数软化作用发生在达到所需温度后的最初几分钟，但如果此温度维持一段延长时间，仍会有些额外的硬度下降。
Usual practice is to heat the steel to the desired temperature and hold it there only long enough to have it uniformly heated.通常的做法是将钢加热到所需温度并且仅保温到正好使其均匀受热。
Two special processes using interrupted quenching are a form of tempering.In both, the hardened steel is quenched in a salt bath held at a selected lower temperature before being allowed to cool.These processes, known as austempering and martempering, result in products having certain desirable physical properties.两种采用中断淬火的特殊工艺也是回火的形式。这两种工艺中，淬硬钢在其被允许冷却前先在一选定的较低温度盐浴淬火。这两种分别被称为奥氏体回火和马氏体回火的工艺，能使产品具有特定所需的物理性能。
Annealing 退火
The primary purpose of annealing is to soften hard steel so that it may be machined or cold worked.退火的主要目的是使坚硬的钢软化以便机加工或冷作。
This is usually accomplished by heating the steel too slightly above the critical temperature, holding it there until the temperature of the piece is uniform throughout, and then cooling at a slowly controlled rate so that the temperature of the surface and that of the center of the piece are approximately the same.通常是非常缓慢地将钢加热到临界温度以上，并将其在此温度下保持到工件全部均匀受热，然后以受控的速率慢慢地冷却，这样使得工件表面和内部的温度近似相同。
This process is known as full annealing because it wipes out all trace of previous structure, refines the crystalline structure, and softens the metal.Annealing also relieves internal stresses previously set up in the metal.这过程被称为完全退火，因为它去除了以前组织结构的所有痕迹、细化晶粒并
软化金属。退火也释放了先前在金属中的内应力。
The temperature to which a given steel should be heated in annealing depends on its composition;for carbon steels it can be obtained readily from the partial iron-iron carbide equilibrium diagram.When the annealing temperature has been reached, the steel should be held there until it is uniform throughout.给定的钢其退火温度取决于它的成分；对碳钢而言可容易地从局部的铁碳合金平衡图得到。达到退火温度后，钢应当保持在此温度等到全部均匀受热。
This usually takes about 45min for each inch(25mm)of thickness of the largest section.For maximum softness and ductility the cooling rate should be very slow, such as allowing the parts to cool down with the furnace.The higher the carbon content, the slower this rate must be.加热时间一般以工件的最大截面厚度计每英寸(25mm)大约需45min。为了得到最大柔软性和延展性冷却速率应该很慢，比如让零件与炉子一起冷下来。含碳量越高，冷却的速率必须越慢。
The heating rate should be consistent with the size and uniformity of sections, so that the entire part is brought up to temperature as uniformly as possible.加热的速率也应与截面的尺寸及均匀程度相协调，这样才能使整个零件尽可能均匀地加热。
Normalizing and Spheroidizing 正火和球化
The process of normalizing consists of heating the steel about 50℉ to 100℉(10℃~40℃)above the upper critical range and cooling in still air to room temperature.正火处理包括先将钢加热到高于上临界区50℉到100℉(10℃~40℃)然后在静止的空气中冷却到室温。
This process is principally used with low-and medium-carbon steels as well as alloy steels to make the grain structure more uniform, to relieve internal stresses, or to achieve desired results in physical properties.Most commercial steels are normalized after being rolled or cast.退火主要用于低碳钢、中碳钢及合金钢，使晶粒结构更均匀、释放内应力或获得所需的物理特性。大多数商业钢材在轧制或铸造后都要退火。
Spheroidizing is the process of producing a structure in which the cementite is in a spheroidal distribution.If steel is heated slowly to a temperature just below the critical range and held there for a prolonged period of time, this structure will be obtained.球化是使渗碳体产生成类似球状分布结构的工艺。如果把钢缓慢加热到恰好低于临界温度并且保持较长一段时间，就能得到这种组织结构。
The globular structure obtained gives improved machinability to the steel.This treatment is particularly useful for hypereutectoid steels that must be machined.所获得的球状结构改善了钢的可切削性。此处理方法对必须机加工的过共析钢特别有用。
Surface Hardening 表面硬化 Carburizing The oldest known method of producing a hard surface on steel is case hardening or carburizing.Iron at temperatures close to and above its critical temperature has an affinity for carbon.渗碳
最早的硬化钢表面的方法是表面淬火或渗碳。铁在靠近并高于其临界温度时对碳具有亲合力。
The carbon is absorbed into the metal to form a solid solution with iron and converts the outer surface into high-carbon steel.The carbon is gradually diffused to the interior of the part.The depth of the case depends on the time and temperature of the treatment.碳被吸收进金属与铁形成固溶体使外表面转变成高碳钢。碳逐渐扩散到零件内
部。渗碳层的深度取决于热处理的时间和温度。
Pack carburizing consists of placing the parts to be treated in a closed container with some carbonaceous material such as charcoal or coke.It is a long process and used to produce fairly thick cases of from 0.03 to 0.16 in.(0.76~4.06mm)in depth.固体渗碳的方法是将要处理的零件与木炭或焦炭这些含碳的材料一起放入密闭容器。这是一个较长的过程，用于产生深度为0.03到0.16 英寸(0.76~4.06mm)这么厚的硬化层。
Steel for carburizing is usually a low-carbon steel of about 0.15% carbon that would not in itself responds appreciably to heat treatment.In the course of the process the outer layer is converted into high-carbon steel with a content ranging from 0.9% to 1.2% carbon.用于渗碳的一般是含碳量约为0.15%、本身不太适合热处理的低碳钢。在处理过程中外层转化为含碳量从0.9%到1.2%的高碳钢。
A steel with varying carbon content and, consequently, different critical temperatures requires a special heat treatment.含碳量变化的钢具有不同的临界温度，因此需要特殊的热处理。
Because there is some grain growth in the steel during the prolonged carburizing treatment, the work should be heated to the critical temperature of the core and then cooled, thus refining the core structure.The steel
should then be reheated to a point above the transformation range of the case and quenched to produce a hard, fine structure.由于在较长的渗碳过程中钢内部会有些晶粒生长，所以工件应该加热到核心部分的临界温度再冷却以细化核心部分的组织结构。然后重新加热到高于外层转变温度再淬火以生成坚硬、细致的组织结构。
The lower heat-treating temperature of the case results from the fact that hypereutectoid steels are normally austenitized for hardening just above the lower critical point.A third tempering treatment may be used to reduce strains.由于恰好高于低临界温度通常使过共析钢奥氏体化而硬化，所以对外层采用较低的热处理温度。第三次回火处理可用于减少应变。
Carbonitriding Carbonitriding, sometimes known as dry cyaniding or nicarbing, is a case-hardening process in which the steel is held at a temperature above the critical range in a gaseous atmosphere from which it absorbs carbon and nitrogen.碳氮共渗
碳氮共渗，有时也称为干法氰化或渗碳氮化，是一种表面硬化工艺。通过把钢放在高于临界温度的气体中，让它吸收碳和氮。
Any carbon-rich gas with ammonia can be used.The wear-resistant case produced ranges from 0.003 to 0.030 inch(0.08~ 0.76mm)in thickness.An advantage of carbonitriding is that the hardenability of the case is significantly increased when nitrogen is added, permitting the use of low-cost steels.可以使用任何富碳气体加氨气，能生成厚度从0.003到0.030英寸(0.08~ 0.76mm)的耐磨外层。碳氮共渗的优点之一是加入氮后外层的淬透性极大增加，为使用低价钢提供条件。
Cyaniding Cyaniding, or liquid carbonitriding as it is sometimes called, is also a process that combines the absorption of carbon and nitrogen to obtain surface hardness in low-carbon steels that do not respond to ordinary heat treatment.氰化
氰化，有时称为液体碳氮共渗，也是一种结合了吸收碳和氮来获得表面硬度的工艺，它主要用于不适合通常热处理的低碳钢。
The part to be case hardened is immersed in a bath of fused sodium cyanide salts at a temperature slightly above the Ac1 range, the duration of soaking depending on the depth of the case.The part is then quenched in water or oil to obtain a hard surface.35
需表面硬化的零件浸没在略高于Ac1温度熔化的氰化钠盐溶液中，浸泡的持续时间取决于硬化层的深度。然后将零件在水或油中淬火。
Case depths of 0.005 to 0.015in.(0.13~0.38mm)may be readily obtained by this process.Cyaniding is used principally for the treatment of small parts.通过这样处理可以容易地获得0.005到0.015英寸(0.13~0.38mm)的硬化深度。氰化主要用于处理小零件。
Nitriding Nitriding is somewhat similar to ordinary case hardening, but it uses a different material and treatment to create the hard surface constituents.渗氮
渗氮有些类似普通表面硬化，但它采用不同的材料和处理方法来产生坚硬表面成分。
In this process the metal is heated to a temperature of around 950℉(510℃)and held there for a period of time in contact with ammonia gas.Nitrogen from the gas is introduced into the steel, forming very hard nitrides that are finely dispersed through the surface metal.这种工艺中金属加热到约950℉(510℃)，然后与氨气接触一段时间。氨气中的氮进入钢内，形成细微分布于金属表面又十分坚固的氮化物。
Nitrogen has greater hardening ability with certain elements than with others, hence, special nitriding alloy steels have been developed.氮与某些元素的硬化能力比其它元素大，因此开发了专用的渗氮合金钢。Aluminum in the range of 1% to 1.5% has proved to be especially suitable in steel, in that it combines with the gas to form a very stable and hard constituent.The temperature of heating ranges from 925℉ to 1,050℉(495℃~565℃).在钢中含铝1%到1.5%被证明特别合适，它能与氨气结合形成很稳定坚固的成分。其加热温度范围为925℉到1,050℉(495℃~565℃)。
Liquid nitriding utilizes molten cyanide salts and, as in gas nitriding, the temperature is held below the transformation range.Liquid nitriding adds more nitrogen and less carbon than either cyaniding or carburizing in cyanide baths.液体渗氮利用熔化的氰化物盐，就像气体渗氮，温度保持在低于转化范围内。液体渗氮时在氰化物溶液中加入比氰化及渗碳都较多的氮和较少的碳。
Case thickness of 0.001 to 0.012in.(0.03~0.30mm)is obtained, whereas for gas nitriding the case may be as thick as 0.025 in.(0.64mm).In general the uses of the two-nitriding processes are similar.液体渗氮可以获得厚度为0.001到0.012英寸(0.03~0.30mm)的硬化层，然而气体渗氮则能获得厚0.025英寸(0.64mm)的硬化层。一般而言两种渗氮方法的用途是类
似的。
Nitriding develops extreme hardness in the surface of steel.This hardness ranges from 900 to 1,100 Brinell, which is considerably higher than that obtained by ordinary case hardening.渗氮在钢表面获得远远超出正常标准的硬度。其硬度范围为900到1,100布氏硬度，这远高于普通表面硬化所获得的硬度。
Nitriding steels, by virtue of their alloying content, are stronger than ordinary steels and respond readily to heat treatment.It is recommended that these steels be machined and heat-treated before nitriding, because there is no scale or further work necessary after this process.由于渗氮钢的合金比例，它们比普通钢更强，也容易热处理。建议对这种钢在渗氮前先机加工和热处理，因为渗氮后没有剥落并不需要更多的加工。
Fortunately, the interior structure and properties are not affected appreciably by the nitriding treatment and, because no quenching is necessary, there is little tendency to warp, develop cracks, or change condition in any way.The surface effectively resists corrosive action of water, saltwater spray, alkalies, crude oil, and natural gas.值得庆幸的是由于渗氮处理一点都不影响内部结构和性能，也无需淬火，所以几乎没有任何产生翘曲、裂缝及变化条件的趋势。这种表面能有效地抵御水、盐雾、碱、原油和天然气的腐蚀反应。
Casting is a manufacturing process in which molten metal is poured or injected and allowed to solidify in a suitably shaped mold cavity.During or after cooling, the cast part is removed from the mold and then processed for delivery.铸造是一种将熔化的金属倒入或注入合适的铸模腔并且在其中固化的制造工艺。在冷却期间或冷却后，把铸件从铸模中取出，然后进行交付。
Casting processes and cast-material technologies vary from simple to highly complex.Material and process selection depends on the part’s complexity and function, the product’s quality specifications, and the projected cost level.铸造工艺和铸造材料技术从简单到高度复杂变化很大。材料和工艺的选择取决于零件的复杂性和功能、产品的质量要求以及成本预算水平。
Castings are parts that are made close to their final dimensions by a casting process.With a history dating back 6,000 years, the various casting processes are in a state of continuous refinement and evolution as technological advances are being made.通过铸造加工，铸件可以做成很接近它们的最终尺寸。回溯6,000年历史，各种各样的铸造工艺就如同科技进步一样处于一个不断改进和发展的状态。
Sand Casting 砂型铸造
Sand casting is used to make large parts(typically iron, but also bronze，39
brass, aluminum).Molten metal is poured into a mold cavity formed out of sand(natural or synthetic).砂型铸造用于制造大型零件(具有代表性是铁，除此之外还有青铜、黄铜和铝)。将熔化的金属倒入由型砂(天然的或人造的)做成铸模腔。
The processes of sand casting are discussed in this section, including patterns, sprues and runners, design considerations, and casting allowance.本节讨论砂型铸造工艺，包括型模、浇注口、浇道、设计考虑因素及铸造余量。The cavity in the sand is formed by using a pattern(an approximate duplicate of the real part), which are typically made out of wood, sometimes metal.The cavity is contained in an aggregate housed in a box called the flask.砂型里的型腔是采用型模(真实零件的近似复制品)构成的，型模一般为木制，有时也用金属制造。型腔整个包含在一个被放入称为砂箱的箱子里的组合体内。
Core is a sand shape inserted into the mold to produce the internal features of the part such as holes or internal passages.Cores are placed in the cavity to form holes of the desired shapes.Core print is the region added to the pattern, core, or mold that is used to locate and support the core within the mold.砂芯是插入铸模的砂型，用于生成诸如孔或内通道之类的内部特征。砂芯安放在型腔里形成所需形状的孔洞。砂芯座是加在型模、砂芯或铸模上的特定区域，用
来在铸模内部定位和支撑砂芯。
A riser is an extra void created in the mold to contain excessive molten material.The purpose of this is to feed the molten metal to the mold cavity as the molten metal solidifies and shrinks, and thereby prevents voids in the main casting.冒口是在铸模内部增加的额外空间，用于容纳过多的熔化金属。其目的是当熔化金属凝固和收缩时往型腔里补充熔化金属，从而防止在主铸件中产生孔隙。
In a two-part mold, which is typical of sand castings, the upper half, including the top half of the pattern, flask, and core is called cope and the lower half is called drag, as shown in Fig.3.1.The parting line or the parting surface is line or surface that separates the cope and drag.在典型砂型铸造的两箱铸模中，上半部分(包括型模顶半部、砂箱和砂芯)称为上型箱，下半部分称为下型箱，见图3.1所示。分型线或分型面是分离上下型箱的线或面。
The drag is first filled partially with sand, and the core print, the cores, and the gating system are placed near the parting line.The cope is then assembled to the drag, and the sand is poured on the cope half, covering the pattern, core and the gating system.首先往下型箱里部分地填入型砂和砂芯座、砂芯，并在靠近分型线处放置浇注系统。然后将上型箱与下型箱装配在一起，再把型砂倒入上型箱盖住型模、砂芯和
浇注系统。
The sand is compacted by vibration and mechanical means.Next, the cope is removed from the drag, and the pattern is carefully removed.The object is to remove the pattern without breaking the mold cavity.型砂通过振动和机械方法压实。然后从下型箱上撤掉上型箱，小心翼翼地取出型模。其目的是取出型模而不破坏型腔。
This is facilitated by designing a draft, a slight angular offset from the vertical to the vertical surfaces of the pattern.This is usually a minimum of 1.5mm(0.060in.), whichever is greater.The rougher the surface of the pattern, the more the draft to be provided.通过设计拔模斜度—型模垂直相交表面的微小角度偏移量—来使取出型模变得容易。拔模斜度最小一般为1.5mm(0.060in.)，只能比此大。型模表面越粗糙，则拔模斜度应越大。
The molten material is poured into the pouring cup, which is part of the gating system that supplies the molten material to the mold cavity.熔化的金属从浇注杯注入型腔，浇注杯是浇注系统向型腔提供熔化金属的部分。The vertical part of the gating system connected to the pouring cup is the sprue, and the horizontal portion is called the runners and finally to the multiple points where it is introduced to the mold cavity called the gates.42
将浇注系统的垂直部分与浇注杯连接的是浇注口，浇注系统的水平部分称为浇道，最后到多点把熔化金属导入型腔的称为闸道。
Additionally there are extensions to the gating system called vents that provide the path for the built-up gases and the displaced air to vent to the atmosphere.除此之外，还有称为排放口的浇注系统延长段，它为合成气体和置换空气排放到大气提供通道。
The cavity is usually made oversize to allow for the metal contraction as it cools down to room temperature.This is achieved by making the pattern oversize.To account for shrinking, the pattern must be made oversize by these factors on the average.These are linear factors and apply in each direction.型腔通常大于所需尺寸以允许在金属冷却到室温时收缩。这通过把型模做得大于所需尺寸来达到。为解决收缩效应，一般而言型模做得比所需尺寸大，必须考虑线性因素并作用于各个方向。
These shrinkage allowances are only approximate, because the exact allowance is determined by the shape and size of the casting.In addition, different parts of the casting might require different shrinkage allowances.收缩余量仅仅是近似的，因为准确的余量是由铸件的形状和尺寸决定的。另外，铸件的不同部分也可能需要不同的收缩余量。
Sand castings generally have a rough surface sometimes with surface impurities, and surface variations.A machining(finish)allowance is made for this type of defect.砂型铸件一般表面粗糙，有时还带有表面杂质和表面变异。对这类缺陷采用机加工(最后一道工序)的余量。
In general, typical stages of sand casting operation include(as shown in Fig.3.2): 1.Patterns are made.These will be the shape used to form the cavity in the sand.一般而言，砂型铸造作业的典型阶段包括(如图3.2所示)： 1.制作型模。做成用于在型砂中形成型腔的形状。
2.Cores may also be made at this time.These cores are made of bonded sand that will be broken out of the cast part after it is complete.3.Sand is mulled(mixed)thoroughly with additives such as bentonite to increase bonding and overall strength.2.同时还要制作砂芯。这些砂芯用粘结砂做成，等铸件完成后将被打碎取出。3.型砂与膨润土之类的添加剂充分地混合以增强连接及整体强度。
4.Sand is formed about the patterns, and gates, runners, risers, vents
and pouring cups are added as needed.A compaction stage is typically used to ensure good coverage and solid molds.4.型砂在型模周围成形，并根据需要安放闸道、浇道、冒口、排放口和浇注杯等。通常要采取压紧步骤来保证良好的覆盖和坚固的铸型。
Cores may also be added to make concave or internal features for the cast part.Alignment pins may also be used for mating the molds later.Chills may be added to cool large masses faster.安放砂芯来制成铸件的凹形结构或内部特征。为了以后铸模匹配还要用到定位销。对大质量铸件可能需要加入冷却物来使其较快冷却。
5.The patterns are removed, and the molds may be put through a baking stage to increase strength.6.Mold halves are mated and prepared for pouring metal.5.取走型模，将铸模烘焙以增加强度。6.匹配上下铸模，做好浇铸金属的准备。
7.Metal is preheated in a furnace or crucible until is above the liquidus temperature in a suitable range(we don’t want the metal solidifying before the pour is complete).The exact temperature may be closely controlled depending upon the application.7.金属在熔炉或坩埚中预热到高于液化温度的一个合适范围内(不希望金属在
浇铸完成前凝固)。确切的温度要根据应用场合严格控制。
Degassing, and other treatment processes may be done at this time, such as removal of impurities(i.e.slag).Some portion of this metal may be remelted scrap from previously cast parts—10% is reasonable.在此期间还要进行排气和其它处理步骤，例如去除杂质(即熔渣)。可以加入一定量原先是这种金属铸件的废料再融化—10%是适当的。
8.The metal is poured slowly, but continuously into the mold until the mold is full.9.As the molten metal cools(minutes to days), the metal will shrink and the volume will decrease.During this time molten metal may backflow from the molten risers to feed the part and maintain the same shape.8.将金属缓慢而连续地注满型模。
9.随着熔化金属的冷却(几分钟到几天)，金属收缩体积减小。在此期间熔化金属可能从冒口回流供给零件以保持其形状不变。
10.Once the part starts to solidify small dendrites of solid material form in the part.During this time metal properties are being determined, and internal stresses are being generated.If a part is allowed to cool slowly enough at a constant rate then the final part will be relatively homogenous and stress free.46
10.在零件开始凝固其内部形成固态金属的小型树枝状结晶期间金属性能被确定，同时也产生了内应力。如果零件以恒定速率冷却得足够缓慢，最终零件将相对均质并释放内应力。
11.Once the part has completely solidified below the eutectic point it may be removed with no concern for final metal properties.At this point the sand is simply broken up, and the part removed.At this point the surface will have a quantity of sand adhering to the surface, and solid cores inside.11.一旦零件在共析点以下完全凝固，可以不考虑金属的最后性能而将其取出。这时可以简单地打碎砂型并取出零件，但零件表面会有大量型砂粘附着，内部还有实心的砂芯。
12.A bulk of the remaining sand and cores can be removed by mechanically striking the part.Other options are to use a vibrating table, sand/shot blaster, hand labor, etc.12.大量的剩余型砂和砂芯要通过机械敲击零件来去除。其它的选择还有采用振动台、喷砂/喷丸机、手工作业等等。
13.The final part is cut off the runner gate system, and is near final shape using cutters, torches, etc.Grinding operations are used to remove any remaining bulk.14.The part is taken down to final shape using machining operations.And cleaning operations may be used to remove oxides, etc.47
13.最后零件要用刀具、喷枪等切掉浇道闸道系统，这样就接近最终形状了。再用磨削作业去除多余的部分。
14.通过机加工将零件切削到最终形状。可能还要用清洗作业去除氧化物等。Investment casting 熔模铸造
Investment casting is also known as the lost wax process.This process is one of the oldest manufacturing processes.The Egyptians used it in the time of the Pharaohs to make gold jewelry(hence the name Investment)some 5,000 years ago.熔模铸造也称为失蜡加工。这是最古老的制造工艺之一。大约在5,000年前的法老王时代，埃及人就用它制造黄金饰品(因此而得名投资)。
Intricate shapes can be made with high accuracy.In addition, metals that are hard to machine or fabricate are good candidates for this process.It can be used to make parts that cannot be produced by normal manufacturing techniques, such as turbine blades that have complex shapes, or airplane parts that have to withstand high temperatures.复杂的形状能被高精度地制造。另外较难机加工或制作的金属都能用此工艺。它还能用于生产一般制造技术无法生产的零件，例如有复杂形状的涡轮叶片或必须耐得住高温的飞机零件。
The mold is made by making a pattern using wax or some other material that can be melted away.This wax pattern is dipped in refractory slurry, which coats the wax pattern and forms a skin.This is dried and the process of dipping in the slurry and drying is repeated until a robust thickness is achieved.制作铸型的型模采用石蜡或其它一些能被融化掉的材料做成。石蜡型模浸泡在耐热浆里，让它覆盖型模并形成外壳，然后使其变干。重复这个浸泡、变干的过程直至获得足够的厚度。
After this, the entire pattern is placed in an oven and the wax is melted away.This leads to a mold that can be filled with the molten metal.Because the mold is formed around a one-piece pattern(which does not have to be pulled out from the mold as in a traditional sand casting process), very intricate parts and undercuts can be made.完成后把整个型模放在烤箱里融化石蜡。这样就做成了能填充熔化金属的铸型。由于这种铸型是环绕整块型模形成的(无需像传统的砂型铸造工艺那样拔模)，能制作十分复杂的零件和浮雕。
The wax pattern itself is made by duplicating using a stereo lithography or similar model—which has been fabricated using a computer solid model master.石蜡型模本身能用立体制版或类似的模型复制—这可以采用计算机立体模型原
版制作。
The materials used for the slurry are a mixture of plaster, a binder and powdered silica, a refractory, for low temperature melts.For higher temperature melts, sillimanite or alumina-silicate is used as a refractory, and silica is used as a binder.对较低熔化温度而言，用于耐热浆的材料是石膏作粘合剂和用粉末状硅石作耐温材料的混合物。对较高熔化温度而言，则采用硅线石或氧化铝硅酸盐作耐温材料、无水硅酸作粘合剂。
Depending on the fineness of the finish desired additional coatings of sillimanite and ethyl silicate may be applied.The mold thus produced can be used directly for light castings, or be reinforced by placing it in a larger container and reinforcing it more slurry.根据最后所需光洁度也可采用硅线石和乙烷基硅酸盐。这样生成的铸模可直接用于薄壁铸件或通过将其放在较大容器内用更多耐热浆加强。
Just before the pour, the mold is pre-heated to about 1,000℃(1,832℉)to remove any residues of wax, harden the binder.The pour in the pre-heated mold also ensures that the mold will fill completely.在正要浇铸之前，将型模预热到约1,000℃(1,832℉)以去除剩余石蜡、硬化粘合剂。在预热的型模中浇铸也能保证型模完全充满。
一翻译目的论的基本涵义
翻译目的论, 其鼻祖是德国的翻译理论家费米尔, 早于20世纪70年代就提出了这样的系列模式。对于翻译界来讲, 这样的全新的模式的确存在着一定的意义, 所谓的翻译目的论, 其研究的焦点在于目的的选择, 在翻译的过程中, 基于一定的目的去进行翻译。在他看来, 翻译不仅仅是语言之间的等价交换, 其更多的是在一定的环境下, 基于一定的目的的人类交流。
翻译往往带有一定的目的性, 是符合目的理论的言语学科。其在1984年与赖斯实现了合作, 最终推出了书籍一本, 即《普通翻译理论基础》, 书本对于翻译目的论的基本规则进行了详细的介绍, 主要涉及以下几个方面: (1) 翻译的文本有赖于译者的目的; (2) 翻译的资料是语言和文化的给予者, 源文本是源语言和文化的给予者;在翻译的过程中, 两者的语言和文化实现了沟通; (3) 翻译文本不是对于源语言的机械, 全面的语言还原; (4) 翻译文本之间存在一定的联系, 上述的五个方面的重要性是不断递减的, 其中的目的原则是最重要的。从这样的次序排列可以看出, 在他看来翻译目的论的核心是第一点, 翻译的主要因素取决于翻译的目的。
二我国高校网页中英文对照的重要性和必要性
翻译目的论对于我国高校网页中英文对照的实际水平有着一定的意义, 本文将从这个角度来审视我国高校重视网页中英文对照的重要性和必要性。首先, 这是高等教育网络化的客观要求, 现阶段由于网络被大面积使用到高校的办学过程中, 在网页的建设上开展相关的研究也就成了必要的内容;其次, 这是树立高校学校形象的主要方式, 现阶段我国教育不断发展, 趋向于国际化的发展模式要求进行网页的英文编辑;最后, 实现国际学术交流的必然要求, 目前我国的部分高校有着很多的留学生教育, 如此的网页设计有利于在此方面工作的顺利开展。
综上所述, 中国高校的英文网页制作的质量关系重大, 不仅仅代表着高校的形象, 更是体现了我国教育的国际化。在参考西方部分高校的网站建设的时候, 我们结合自身网站的建设, 还是看到很大差异, 尤其是在翻译目的论下体现出的差异, 已将我们的网页水平下降到一定的水平。无论是网页上的错误译法, 还是网页上的翻译漏洞, 都对大学网站建设不利, 都在交流上出现很多的问题, 这是我们不想看到的。也是作为高校, 必须不断去探索和发现的问题, 以求不断提高网页中英文对照的水平, 更好地实现文化的交流。
三翻译目的论视角下的高校网页中英文对照
在翻译目的论的视角下, 我国高校网页制作上的中英文对照出现了很多失误和不足, 在这些方面还需要作出相应的调整, 主要可从以下几方面入手:
1. 具备尊重受众, 尊重读者的意识
翻译目的论, 要求在翻译的过程中以受众为出发点, 实现宏观层面上的翻译工作。实际上来讲, 它涉及翻译的全部过程, 对于译文的预定能力有着一定程度上的影响。在目的上出现失误, 主要是指译者在翻译的过程中, 缺乏尊重受众, 尊重读者的意识, 造成译文和读者的接受程度不符合。依照翻译目的论的理论, 译者需要依据译文预期的目的和功能来确定使用什么样的翻译技巧和翻译原则。这在高校的网页英文对照的过程中需要重视这一点, 对于学校的介绍不要将那些中国化的宣传直接翻译成英语, 而是结合英文读者的习惯去解释和说明学校的概况。
2. 具备尊重习语, 尊重译入语的习惯
翻译目的论主张, 原文是译文的信息提供者, 追求同样的性质, 同样数量的信息传达, 是译者做不到的事情。在此观点看来, 对外宣传的英语翻译首先要在明确目的之后, 保证读者和接受者在接受信息时不受到影响。结合英国当代翻译理论家诺伊贝特的观点, 对外宣传的翻译要完全结合目的语言, 也就是说要结合译入语的使用习惯、使用方式和使用频率, 从而实现与原始语言的用语习惯的一致性。在高校网页内容编辑过程中, 要尊重相关的习语使用, 尤其是在学校的专业介绍的版块上, 有些专业的术语尽量做到和语言上的一致, 充分体现出译入语的文化和气息, 这一点在我国高校网页编辑上做的不是很理想, 还需要不断强化。
3. 具备尊重原文, 尊重原文预期的态度
在翻译目的论看来, 译文的预期读者, 译文的受众都是对于中国大学比较感兴趣的人, 他们要么是想进修中国高校的学生, 要么是希望了解中国高校教育或希望和中国文化实现交流的学者, 或是希望和中国高校实现合作的外企人士。对于这些群体进行分析, 我们可以看到, 他们往往缺少一定的中国文化知识背景, 在此要求在翻译操作时注意适当的调整, 对于一些原文的内容, 进行详细的批注和解释, 将有利于其顺利地理解网站的内容, 这就是要求做到尊重原文的预期内容, 尊重原文的宣传目的。
4. 具备尊重文化, 尊重文化差异的素质
翻译目的论认为, 翻译应符合目的语文化的习惯。此时文化, 即社会个体成员为了实现异同点熟知的规范和惯例。文化性差异的存在是客观的、难以避免的, 在翻译过程中就是指译文和译语言之间在惯例和规范上出现了冲突, 这是要使用同化和异化的方式, 使翻译尽量做到符合目标语言的文化思维, 实际上文化性翻译失误的情况常常发生, 这就是因为译者没有注意内外有别、文化差异的原因。在高校网页的建设中, 要求译者做到尊重文化, 尊重文化的差异性, 做出适当的调整, 使高校的网站内容趋向于英语国家的表达习惯。
综上所述, 翻译的标准是多样化的, 翻译的目的也是多样化的。相应的翻译手段、翻译的方式也是多样化的。以目的论为理论基础, 我们可以看到, 为什么现在的翻译界出现了如此多的翻译标准, 因为翻译的目的发生变化, 其相应要做的改变也是多方面的。这也对译者提出了相应的要求, 其在翻译的过程中, 需要作出的改善也是必然的。
四结束语
综上所述, 以互联网为基础建立的网页内容, 在新的形势下需要做的改善是多方面的, 需要不断调整, 尤其要以翻译目的论为基础, 广泛开展高校网页内容的改善和修正, 以语言的精炼、准确、高效为目标, 实现文化的有效交流。从而推动我国高校国际化发展的趋势。为此我们需要在以下几方面做好工作: (1) 具备尊重受众, 尊重读者的意识; (2) 具备尊重习语, 尊重译入语的习惯; (3) 具备尊重原文, 尊重原文预期的态度; (4) 具备尊重文化, 尊重文化差异的素质。相信在不断的探索和研究中, 我国高校在网页质量上将会出现很大的改观。
摘要：本文基于翻译目的论的相关理论, 从翻译目的论的起源, 谈及翻译目的论的基本原则, 在此基础上以翻译目的论的视角, 去审视现阶段我国高校网页的中英文对照, 在进过一系列的研究后, 发现翻译目的论的确在我国高校网页的中英文翻译中得到了广泛的使用。其对于以后的网页中英文对照研究具有一定的历史意义, 是很值得去深究的领域。
关键词：翻译目的论,高校网页,中英文对照
参考文献
[1]孙迎春.“翻译标准多元互补论”研究[J].外语与外语教学, 2003 (8)
[2]卞正东.翻译目的论[J].无锡教育学院学报, 2004 (3)
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